2/2006 Conversations about Motherland: Individual and Collective Experiences of “Homeland”

Структуры гражданского общества в модернизирующемся полиэтническом городе: немецкий город в Российской империи становится эстонским

Брэдли Вудворт

2/2006

Материал публикуется на английском (на английской части сайта).

SUMMARY:

В своей статье Брэдли Вудворт исследует процесс национализации многонационального окраинного города Российской империи Таллинна (Reval, Ревель) в конце XIX – начале XX века как часть процесса территориализации (формирования образа “родной земли”) национального сообщества. В центре исследования – процессы развития гражданского городского общества, жизнь профессиональных и общественных ассоциаций, местное самоуправление. Все эти аспекты городской жизни, как замечает автор, были заслонены в историографии темами национальной и классовой борьбы. Автор обращает внимание на то, что в языке самоописания эстонского сообщества столица Эстляндии воспринималась как инонациональное пространство, а вертикально мобильные эстонские элементы, проникающие в городскую среду, описывались в немецких терминах социальной и культурной иерархии. Данное положение меняется во второй половине XIX века с развитием индустриализации и изменением демографического баланса города. Автор прослеживает развитие форм гражданской и политической жизни эстонского общества, диалектическое взаимодействие этих форм с доминантными формами немецко-балтийского общества и то, как эти формы создавали фундамент для модерного национального развития с опорой на национальную территорию и политическую независимость.

1.See the early collection edited by Samuel D. Kassow, James L. West, and Edith W. Clowes (Eds.). Between Tsar and People: Educated Society and the Quest for Public Identity in Late Imperial Russia. Princeton, 1991. See also Adele Lindenmeyr. Poverty Is Not a Vice: Charity Society and the State in Imperial Russia. Princeton, 1996. On voluntary associations as evidence for civil society in tsarist Russia, see Joseph Bradley. Subjects into Citizens: Societies, Civil Society, and Autocracy in Tsarist Russia // American Historical Review. 2002. Vol. 107. Pp. 1094-1123. On the belated fostering of institutions of civil society and social activism by the state after 1905, see A. S. Tumanova. Samoderzhavie i obshchestvennye organizatsii v Rossii: 1905-1917 gody. Tambov, 2002. Boris Mironov has used the concept of civil society in his recent major study of social history in tsarist Russia; he employs the term grazhdanskoe obshchestvo, which he defines as a “society, founded on political freedoms and on law, whose members share developed economic, cultural, legal and political relations independent of the state, though which also cooperates with the state.” See B. N. Mironov. Sotsial’naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii (XVII-nachalo XX v.). Genezis lichnosti, demokraticheskoi sem’i, grazhdanskogo obshchestva i pravovogo gosudarstva. Vol. 2. St. Petersburg, 1999. P. 110.↩

2.Ulrike von Hirschhausen sees late-tsarist Riga foremost as a multiethnic space. Riga’s path to modernity, in her view, is found in social and economic modernization and in the formation of nationalities. See Ulrike von Hirschhausen. Die Wahrnehmung des Wandels: Migration, soziale Mobilität und Mentalitäten in Riga 1867-1914 // Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung. 1999. Bd. 48. S. 475-523. An important recent collection of essays on multiethnic tsarist-era Riga is Erwin Oberländer and Kristine Wohlfart (Hg.). Riga. Portrait einer Vielvölkerstadt am Rande des Zarenriches 1857-1914. Paderborn, 2004. Unfortunately, the essays in this volume examine each ethnic group separately, and there is no synthetic treatment of shared experience and interaction between nationalities. See also the essays in Eduard Mühle and Norbert Angermann (Hg.). Riga im ProzeЯ der Modernisierung. Studien zum Wandel einer Ostseemetropole im 19. und frühen 20. Jahrhundert. Marburg, 2004. On the genesis and development of civil society among all major ethnic groups in Tallinn in the late tsarist era, see Bradley D. Woodworth. Civil Society and Nationality in the Multiethnic Russian Empire: Tallinn/Reval, 1860-1914 / Ph.D. dissertation; Indiana University, 2003. Interesting comparisons can be made with Helsinki; on innovation as a prism for understanding urban development in this city, see Marjatta Bell and Marjatta Hietala. Helsinki: the Innovative City. Historical Perspectives. Helsinki, 2002.↩

3.See the monograph by Ea Jansen. Inimene muutuvas ajas: seisusühiskonnast kodanikeühiskonda [The Individual in Changing Times: From Estate Society to Civil Society]. Tartu, forthcoming 2006. See also the comments by Jörg Hackmann. Civil Society against the State? Historical Experiences of Eastern Europe // Norbert Götz and Jörg Hackmann (Eds.). Civil Society in the Baltic Sea Region. Aldershot, Hampshire, England, 2003. Pp. 61-62.↩

4.Sources: Tallinna Linna Statistiline Aastaraamat 1924. Tallinn, 1925. P. 15; Raimo Pullat. Eesti linnad ja linlased XVII sajandi lхpust 1917. aastani. Tallinn, 1972. P. 58.
a. The data for 1844 should be considered approximations. The first thorough census conducted in Tallinn was that of 1871.
b. In the data for 1844 and 1871, Jews were counted as Germans. In 1871, those of Jewish faith numbered 412; similar data for 1936 and 1844 are unavailable. In 1917, Jews in Tallinn were apparently included in the category “other nationalities.” Paul Jordan (Hg.). Die Resultate der Volkszählung der Stadt Reval am 16. November 1871. Reval, 1874. P. 106; and Raimo Pullat. Eesti linnad ja linlased XVII sajandi lхpust 1917. aastani. Tallinn, 1972. P. 58.
c. The data for 1917 are estimates by the Tallinn City Statistical Bureau. See Tallinna Linnaarhiiv (Tallinn City Archive = TLA). F. 195. N. 2. S. 2172. L. 10. The large number of members of other nationalities included the following: Latvians, 5,000; Poles, 4,000, Jews, 1,300; Lithuanians, 800. Most of these were war refugees.↩

5.Pervaia vseobshchaia perepis’ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Imperii, 1897 g. / Ed. by N. A. Troinitskii. Vol. 49. St. Petersburg, 1905. Pp. 116-117; Paul Jordan (Hg.). Ergebnisse der baltischen Volkszählung vom 29. December 1881. Theil II. Ergebnisse der ehstländischen Volkszählung. 1. Band, Die Zählung in Reval. Lieferung I. Reval. S. 20.↩

6.Reinhard Wittram. Geschichte der baltischen Deutschen: Grundzüge und Durchblicke. Stuttgart/Berlin, 1939. S. 176.↩

7.Hans Kruus. Linn ja küla Eestis [Town and Village in Estonia]. Tartu, 1920. Pp. 22-29.↩

8.Venelased [Russians] // Tallinn. Entsüklopeedia. Tallinn, 2004. Vol. 1. P. 324.↩

9.In 1912 the largest Tallinn Russian-language daily wrote in an editorial of the “feebleness” (bezpomoshchnost’) of and “lack of coordination” (razroznennost’) of Russian society in the city. See Revel’skie Izvestiia. 1912. February 4. P. 1. See also Elfriede Lender. Minu lastele [To My Children]. Stockholm, 1967. P. 244.↩

10.Dvigatel // Tallinn. Entsüklopeedia. Tallinn, 2004. Vol. 1. P. 48.↩

11.Maie Pihlamägi. Eesti industrialiseerimine 1870-1940 [The Industrialization of Estonia, 1870-1940]. Tallinn, 1999. P. 29.↩

12.Ibid. P. 31.↩

13.O. Karma. Tööstuslikult revolutsioonilt sotsialistlikule revolutsioonile Eestis. Tööstuse arenemine 1917. aastani [From the Industrial Revolution to the Socialist Revolution in Estonia: Industrial development to 1917]. Tallinn, 1963. Pp. 287, 293-297; A. Takkin. Tallinna tööstustööliste majanduslikust ja poliitilisest olukorrast 1914.-1917. a. [On the Economic and Political Status of Industrial Workers in Tallinn, 1914-1917] // Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised. VIII. Ühiskonnateaduste seeria. 1959. No. 2. P. 138.↩

14.Raimo Pullat. Tallinnast ja tallinlastest: Nihked elanikkonna sotsiaalses kooseisus, 1891-1914 [On Tallinn and Tallinners: Shifts in the Social Composition of the Population, 1891-1914]. Tallinn, 1966. P. 86. Of Estonian property owners in 1904 and 1908, over half (57.4 percent) owned property valued between 1,000 and 5,000 rubles, an amount which according to Pullat placed them among property owners of middling wealth.↩

15.A. D. Stepanskii. Istoriia obshchestvennykh organizatsii dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii. Moscow, 1979. P. 10.↩

16.E. S. S. [Eesti Spordi Selts]. “Kalev”: Juubeli album 1901-1921 [The E. S. S. (Estonian Sport Society) “Kalev”: Anniversary album, 1901-1921] (n.p., n.d.). P. 2. The society was named for a mythical Estonian hero, Kalev.↩

17.Ferdinand Karlson. E. S. S. “Kalevi” sünnipidu [The E. S. S. “Kalev” Birthday Celebration] // Eesti Spordileht. 1931. No. 18-20. May 29. P. 2.↩

18.Ed. Jürisson. Kui murti saksluse selgroog... 25 aastat eestlaste ülemvхimu vхidule-pääsemisest Tallinna volikogus [When the Backbone of Germanism was Broken… 25 Years Since the Estonians’ Victory in the Tallinn City Council] // Kaitse Kodu. 1929. No. 5. P. 1458.↩

19.Kaarel-Robert Pusta. Kehra metsast maailma [From the Forest of Kehra into the World]. Stockholm, 1960. P. 148.↩

20.Feliks Kinkar. Eesti haridusseltside ajaloost [On the History of Estonian Educational Associations]. Tartu, 1996. Pp. 74-83. Among the association’s directors were leading figures in Estonian public life in Tallinn in the post-1905 period, including Tallinn mayor Voldemar Lender, Konstantin Konik, and Jüri Vilms.↩

21.Krediit-Pank [Credit Bank] // Tallinn. Entsüklopeedia. Tallinn, 2004. Vol. 1. P. 240.↩

22.M. Aitsam. Tallinna Eesti Pхllumeeste Selts [The Estonian Agricultural Society of Tallinn]. Tallinn, 1939. Pp. 228, 265.↩

23.Lender. Minu lastele. Pp. 164-165 and 262-271.↩

24.This estimate is based on membership numbers given by the German Union and figures from the 1897 census, taking into account the small numerical increase Germans were undergoing in the early twentieth century. For German Union membership numbers, see Feliks Kinkar. Lehekülg Eestimaa kultuuriloost: Baltisaksa haridsuseltsseltsid Eestis, 1905-1914 [A Page from the Cultural History of Estonia: Baltic German Education Associations, 1905-1914]. Tallinn, 2000. P. 35.↩

25.V. Novitskii. Revel’skii Literaturnyi Kruzhok // Revel’skii Vestnik. 1931. July 5. P. 2.↩

26.See Jaan Kärner. “Estonia” kuuskümmend aastat: Kroonika 1865-1925 [Sixty Years of “Estonia”: Chronicle 1865-1925]. Tallinn, 1925. P. 38.↩

27.On the early history of Teataja see J. Käosaar. Teataja saamiloost ja algupäevist [The Founding and Early Days of Teataja] // J. Peegel (Ed.). Läbi kahe sajandi [Through Two Centuries]. Tallinn, 1971. Pp. 197-212.↩

28.On Teemant, see Eesti biograafiline leksikon [Estonian Biographical Dictionary]. Tartu, 1926. Pp. 514-16. On Päts, see Ed. Laaman. Konstantin Päts: poliitika- ja riigimees [Konstantin Päts: Politician and Statesman]. Stockholm, 1949.↩

29.Arnold and Ellen Takkin. Kolm laulupidu. Eesti laulupeod aastail 1909-1912 [Three Song Festivals. Estonian Song Festivals in the Years 1909-1912]. Tallinn, 1995. P. 38.↩

30.The association’s leaders had planned for the laying of the theater’s cornerstone to be a central part of the song festival events. However, governor Korostovets placed so many conditions on the proposed occasion – no speeches in Estonian and no singing of the Estonian patriotic song “Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm” (“My fatherland – my joy and happiness”) – that a public cornerstone laying was cancelled. See Kärner. “Estonia” kuuskümmend aastat. P. 52.↩

31.Teataja. August 17, 1902. P. 1. The associations were the cultural associations Estonia and Lootus [Hope], the Tallinn Estonian Agricultural Society, and the Estonian Artisans’ Assistance Society.↩

32.For the history of this association (in Estonian, Estonia Teatri Ehituse ja Ülalpidamise Osaühisus), see H. Peets. “Estonia” teatri – ja kontsertihoone ajalugu [The History of the “Estonia” Theater and Concert Hall]. Tallinn, 1938. Pp. 135-172.↩

33.H. Arman, et al. Eesti arhitektuuri ajalugu [The History of Architecture in Estonia]. Tallinn, 1965. P. 415.↩

34.Peets. Estonia teatri- ja kontsertihoone ajalugu. P. 108. See also Pusta. Kehra metsast maailma. P. 147.↩

35.The directors of the joint stock company during the years 1909 (the year of its creation) to 1919 included the following future leading Estonian politicians: Jaan Poska, Konstantin Päts, Jüri Vilms, Otto Strandman, Anton Uesson, Friedrich Akel, and Konstantin Konik. Two leaders in the Estonian-led city council in the years after 1904 were also directors: Voldemar Lender (mayor from 1906 to 1913), and Juhan Umblia, a leading Estonian city council deputy. See Peets. “Estonia” teatri- ja kontserthoone ajalugu. Pp. 174-179.↩

36.Kärner. “Estonia” kuuskümmend aastat. P. 60.↩

37.Ibid. P. 62.↩

38.Tallinna Linnaarhiiv (Tallinn City Archive = TLA). F. 196. N. 1. S. 169. Several Russian associations were approved, however, including the Russian Assistance Society and the Tallinn Russian Club. The latter was approved despite a written statement by the director of police asserting that most members were former Russian officers and “convinced monarchists.” See TLA. F. 195. N. 1. S. 177. L. 187.↩

39.Peets. “Estonia” teatri- ja kontserthoone ajalugu. P. 161.↩

40.Sulev Mäeltsemees. Tallinna linna juhtimine: 100 aastat eestlaste vхimuletulekust pealinnas [Governing Tallinn: 100 Years Since Estonians’ Coming to Power in the Capital]. Tallinn, 2004. P. 17.↩

41.Eduard Laaman. Jaan Poska: Eesti riigitegelase elukäik [Jaan Poska: The Life of an Estonian Statesman]. 3rd edition. Tartu, 1998. P. 21.↩

42.Ibid. Pp. 21-22. See the Municipal Statute of 1892. Chapter II. Section 1. Paragraph 26. Similar rules for proxy votes were in the 1877 Municipal Statute; see Chapter II. Section 1. Paragraph 20.↩

43.Teataja. 1904. January 17. P. 1.↩

44.Gorodskoe khoziaistvo Revelia 1905-1915. Pt. I. P. 85. Beliagin had strong roots in the Baltic region; his family had lived in Estland for at least several generations. Beliagin himself spoke good Estonian. See Lender. Minu lastele. P. 153. It should be noted that not all Russians elected to the city council in 1904 were associated with the opposition. The council included three additional Russians, who most likely were Germanized to one degree or another.↩

45.Toomas Karjahärm. Eesti linnakodanluse poliitilisest formeerumisest 1870-ndate aastate lхpust kuni 1914. aastani (linna- ja duumavalimiste materjalide pхhjal) [The Political Formation of an Estonian Urban Bourgeoisie From the Late 1870s to 1914 (Based on Materials on City and Duma Elections] // Eesti NSV Teaduste Akadeemia Toimetised. Ühiskonnateadused. 1973. Vol. 22. P. 254. The increase in the size of the electorate in 1900 over that in 1896 was 9.4 percent (1,697 to 1,538).↩

46.Ibid. P. 254.↩

47.M. Pung. Eestlaste vхit Tallinna linnavalimistel [The Estonians’ Victory in the Tallinn City Elections] // K. Päts. Tema elu ja töö: Kaasaeglaste mälestusi [K. Päts. His Life and Work: Contemporary Memoirs]. Tallinn, 1934. P. 100.↩

48.Pullat. Eesti linnad ja linlased. P. 58.↩

49.Even while in exile in Switzerland and Finland from 1905 to 1909, Päts continued working to improve Estonians’ skills in managing municipal affairs by translating into Estonian works published in Western Europe on local government, including books by Adolf Damaschke and Franz Lieber. See Mäeltsemees. Tallinna linna juhtimine. P. 25.↩

50.Elfriede Lender, the mayor’s wife, attests to this in her memoirs. See Lender. Minu lastele. Pp. 257-261. Korostovets was comfortable with the Lenders in part because each had a Russian-language education.↩

51.Laaman. Jaan Poska. Pp. 40-41.↩

52.In a 1915 speech before the Tallinn society of house owners, Poska mentioned the areas in which improvements were overdue: paving streets, expanding the sewage system, and building a city hospital and more schools. See Gorodskoe khoziaistvo Revelia 1905-1915. Pt. I. P. 96.↩

53.Ibid. Pp. 94-95.↩

54.Laaman. Jaan Poska. Pp. 38, 42.↩

55.Reprinted in Gorodskoe khoziaistvo Revelia 1905-1915. Pt. I. P. 95.↩

56.TLA. F. 195. N. 4. S. 38. L. 310.↩

57.Toivo U. Raun. Estonia and the Estonians. Updated 2nd ed. Stanford, 2001. P. 101.↩

58.Arman, et al. Eesti arhitektuuri ajalugu. P. 438.↩

59.Ibid. P. 413. On the connection between architecture and nation building in Estonian areas in the tsarist period and in independent Estonia, see Jörg Hackmann. Architektur als Symbol. Nation-building in Nordosteuropa. Estland und Lettland im 20. Jahrhundert // Angermann and Mühle (Hg.). Riga im ProzeЯ der Modernisierung. S. 149-172.↩

60.Mart Kalm. Eesti 20. sajandi arhitektuur [Twentieth-Century Architecture of Estonia]. Tallinn, 2002. Pp. 28, 31.↩

61.Aleksander Nevski kirik [Alexander Nevsky Church] // Tallinn. Entsüklopeedia. Tallinn, 2004. Vol. 1. Pp. 17-18.↩

62.Gorodskoe khoziaistvo Revelia. Part I. P. 13.↩

63.Dmitri Bruns. Tallinn. Linnaehituslik kujunemine [Tallinn: the Course of City Building]. Tallinn, 1993. P. 103.↩

64.TLA. F. 195. N. 4. S. 34. L. 408-409.↩

65.Tallinna linna statistiline aastaraamat 1940 [Tallinn City Statistical Annual, 1940]. Tallinn, 1941. P. 11. Cited in Bruns. Tallinn. Linnaehituslik kujunemine. P. 110.↩

66.E. Mäsak. Elutingimustest Tallinna eeslinnades 1870-1940 [On the Living Conditions in Tallinn’s Suburbs, 1870-1940]. Tallinn, 1981. P. 97.↩

67.Tallinna linna statistiline aastaraamat 1924 [Tallinn City Statistical Annual, 1924]. Tallinn, 1925. P. 15.↩

68.Bruns. Tallinn. Linnaehituslik kujunemine. Pp. 111-112. Urban planning in Tallinn in the interwar period has been most recently examined in: Andreas Fülberth. Tallinn – Riga – Kaunas. Ihr Ausbau zu modernen Hauptstädten 1920-1940. Köln, 2005. S. 48-182.↩

69.See Manfred Hildermeier’s recent study on late tsarist Yaroslavl’. Liberales Milieu in russischer Provinz. Kommunales Engagement, bürgerliche Vereine und Zivilgesellschaft 1900-1917 // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 2003. Bd. 51. 2003. S. 498-548. Noteworthy here is Ulrike von Hirschhausen’s work on social modernization in late tsarist Riga.↩

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