Конструирование государственной идентичности и его последствия: юридический реставрационизм в Эстонии

Велло Петтаи

3/2007

Материал публикуется на английском (на английской части сайта)

SUMMARY:

С началом Перестройки, т.е. с конца 1980-х годов, история стала важнейшим фактором политических процессов в странах Прибалтики. Статья Велло Петаи посвящена одному из господствующих ориентированных на историю нарративов прибалтийской политики – доктрине государственно-правового реставрационизма (legal restorationism) в ее эстонском варианте. В эстонской политике эта доктрина использовалась для утверждения особой формы постсоветской государственности, которая рассматривалась как буквальное восстановление государственной традиции досоветского периода. Реставрационизм сказывался на трактовке ключевых политических и социальных процессов и категорий, которые были призваны “реставрировать” эту досоветскую государственность. Наиболее значимое воздействие политика государственно-правового реставрационизма оказала на институт и практики гражданства. В 1991 году Эстония лишила права на автоматическое получение гражданства всех жителей республики, приехавших туда в советскую эпоху, а также их потомков. Считалось, что они прибыли в страну в период “нелегальной оккупации”. Государственно-правовой реставрационизм проявился в практике реституции собственности, в установлении государственных границ, в риторике нового политического режима, в историографии и массовой культуре. В статье рассматриваются эти проявления, стоящая за ними трактовка истории, а также зачастую непредсказуемые политические последствия государственно-правового реставрационизма как господствующей идеологической доктрины.

1.It would be beyond the available space in this article to list all the works on the Baltic states reflecting this trend, but among those on Estonia see: Toivo Raun. Estonia and the Estonians. Stanford, Calif., 1991; Rein Taagepera. Estonia: Return to Independence. Boulder, 1993; Wolfgang Drechsler. Estonia in Transition // World Affairs. 1995. Vol. 157. Pp. 111-18; Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm. Recent Historical Developments in Estonia: Three Stages of Transition (1987-1997) // Marju Lauristin, Peeter Vihalemm, Karl Erik Rosengren and Lennart Weibull (Ed.). Return to the Western World: Cultural and Political Perspectives on the Estonian Post-Communist Transition. Tartu, 1997; Mikko Lagerspetz. Consolidation as Hegemonization: The Case of Estonia // Journal of Baltic Studies. 2001. Vol. 32. Pp. 402-20; David J. Smith. Estonia: Independence and European Integration. New York, 2001.↩

2.This article draws on the concluding chapter of my PhD dissertation: Framing the Past as Future: The Power of Legal Restorationism in Estonia / Ph. D. dissertation; Columbia University, 2004. An earlier version was presented at the conference “Inheriting the 1990s: the Baltic Countries,” 23-24 September 2004, Stockholm.↩

3.Scholarly works include: William J. H. III Hough. The Annexation of the Baltic States and Its Effect on the Development of Law Prohibiting Forcible Seizure of Territory // New York Law School Journal of International and Comparative Law. 1985. Vol. 6. Pp. 301-533, Arno Liivak. Soviet Responses to Western Nonrecognition of Baltic Annexation // Journal of Baltic Studies. 1987. Vol. 18. Pp. 329-348, Robert A. Vitas. The Recognition of Lithuania: The Completion of the Legal Circle // Journal of Baltic Studies. 1993. Vol. 24. Pp. 247-62.↩

4.See references in footnote 1.↩

5.Tunne Kelam. Kõne EMS ja ERSP korraldatud Eesti Vabariigi 71 aastapäeva aktusel Estonia kontserdisaalis // Eve Pärnaste (Ed.). Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 1989. P. 262.↩

6.Marju Lauristin. Saadikukandidaat Marju Lauristin: Ise küsin, ise vastan // Maaleht. 1989. March 9. P. 13.↩

7.Tunne Kelam. Eesti Vabariik kui reaalsus // Looming. 1989. No. 5. P. 647.↩

8.Ibid. P. 652.↩

9.Eestimaa Rahvarinne. Eestimaa Rahvarinde valimisplatvorm. Tallinn, 1989. P. 9↩

10.Ibid. P. 16.↩

11.Eesti NSV Ülemnõukogu. Eesti NSV Ülemnõukogu otsus Eesti riiklikust staatusest // Mart Laar, Urmas Ott and Sirje Endre (Ed.). Eeslava. Tallinn, 1990. P. 560.↩

12.Indeed, during the weeks and months to follow, this is exactly how the Estonian Foreign Ministry would proceed with its task of formalizing relations with other states: it would insist that all protocols speak of ‘restoring’ relations, where Estonia had previously had them in 1940.↩

13.Charles F. Jr. Furtado and Michael Hechter. The Emergence of Nationalist Politics in the USSR: A Comparison of Estonia and the Ukraine // Alexander J. Motyl (Ed.). Thinking Theoretically about Soviet Nationalities: History and Comparison in the Study of the USSR. New York, 1992; Hank Johnston. The Comparative Study of Nationalism: Six Pivotal Themes from the Baltic States // Journal of Baltic Studies. 1992. Vol. 23. Pp. 95-104; Edgar Kaskla. Five Nationalism: Estonian Nationalism in Comparative Perspective // Journal of Baltic Studies. 1992. Vol. 23. Pp. 167-78; Rein Ruutsoo. Transitional Society and Social Movements in Estonia 1987-1991 // Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences: Humanities and Social Sciences. 1993. Vol. 42. Pp. 195-214; Raivo Vetik. Ethnic Conflict and Accommodation in Post-Communist Estonia // Journal of Peace Research. 1993. Vol. 30. Pp. 271-81; Peet Kask. National Radicalization in Estonia: Legislation on Citizenship and Related Issues // Nationalities Papers. 1994. Vol. 22. Pp. 379-92; Graham Smith. The Ethnic Democracy Thesis and The Citizenship Question in Estonia and Latvia // Nationalities Papers. 1996. Vol. 24. Pp. 199-216; Graham Smith and Andrew Wilson. Rethinking Russia's Post-Soviet Diaspora: the Potential for Political Mobilisation in Eastern Ukraine and North-east Estonia // Europe-Asia Studies. 1997. Vol. 49. Pp. 845-864; Lee Kendall Metcalf. Outbidding to Radical Nationalists: Minority Policy in Estonia 1988-1993 // Nations and Nationalism. 1996. Vol. 2. Pp. 213-234; Colin W Mettam and Stephen Wyn Williams. Internal Colonialism and Cultural Divisions of Labour in the Soviet Republic of Estonia // Nations and Nationalism. 1998. Vol. 4. Pp. 383-88; Alfred Stepan. When Democracy and the Nation-state Are Competing Logics: Reflections on Estonia // European Journal of Sociology. 1994. Vol. 35. Pp. 127-41; Geoffrey Evans. Ethnic Schism and Consolidation of Post-Communist Democracies: the Case of Estonia // Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 1998. Vol. 31. Pp. 57-74; Lowell Barrington. The Domestic and International Consequences of Citizenship in the Soviet Successor States // Europe-Asia Studies. 1995. Vol. 47. Pp. 731-763; Raivo Vetik. Democratic Multiculturalism: A New Model of National Integration. Working Paper, Aland Islands Peace Institute. 2000; Jeff Chinn and Lisa Truex. The Question of Citizenship in the Baltics // Journal of Democracy. 1996. Vol. 7. Pp. 133-147; Graham Smith, et al. Statehood, Ethnic Relations and Citizenship // Graham Smith (Ed.). The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. New York, 1994; David D Laitin. Identity in Formation: The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad. Ithaca, 1998; Michael Geistlinger and Aksel Kirch. Estonia A New Framework for the Estonian Majority and the Russian Minority. Wien, 1995.

14.No formal statistics exist, which might indicate how many non-ethnic Estonians had citizenship at this point. But public opinion polls from this period (for instance, the EU’s Eurobarometer surveys from 1992-1994) indicate that non-Estonians constituted somewhere around just 10% of citizenry.↩

15.Eesti Statistikaamet. Rahvastik kodakondsuse, vanuse ja rahvuse järgi. See http://gatekeeper.stat.ee:8000/px-web.2001/Database/Rahvaloendus/06Kodakondsus/06Kodakondsus.asp. Last time consulted October 10, 2007.↩

16.Vello Pettai and Klara Hallik. Understanding Processes of Ethnic Control: Segmentation, Dependency and Cooptation in Post-communist Estonia // Nations and Nationalism. 2002. Vol. 8. Pp. 505-529; Vello Pettai. Prospects for Multiethnic Democracy in Europe: Debating Minority Integration in Estonia // Jordi Ferrer and Marisa Iglesias (Ed.). Law, Politics, and Morality: European Perspectives I. Globalisation, Democracy, and Citizenship - Prospects for the European Union. Berlin, 2003. Pp. 53-81.↩

17.Vello Pettai. Estonia and Latvia: International Influences on Citizenship and Minority Integration // Alex Pravda and Jan Zielonka (Ed.). International Influences on Democratic Transition in Central and Eastern Europe. Oxford, 2001.↩

18.Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia. Law of the Republic of Estonia on the Bases of Property Reform // Advig Kiris (Ed.). Restoration of the Independence of the Republic of Estonia: Selection of Legal Acts (1988-1991). Tallinn, 1991.↩

19.Mihkel Pärnoja and Aare Järvan. Ülevaade erastamisväärtpaberite väljaandmisest ja kasutamisest. See http://www.fin.ee/index.php?id=1920. Last time consulted October 10, 2003.↩

20.This represented about half of all vouchers (including privatization vouchers), which would be distributed in Estonia. Tõnis Palts and Aare Järvan. Ülevaade erastamisväärtpaberite väljaandmisest ja kasutamisest. See http://www.fin.ee/index.php?id=6971. Last time consulted October 10, 2003.↩

21.Essentially, landlords were forbidden from forcing out old tenants except through mutual consent.↩

22.Krista Loogma. Elamumajandus // Ahto Oja and Anto Raukas (Ed.). Eesti Agenda 21. Tallinn, 2002.↩

23.Since most Russians in Estonia were Soviet-era settlers, a majority of them also lived in Soviet-built apartments, which they later freely privatized. Estonians, by contrast, had often ended up in pre-war apartment buildings, either because they had been given this housing immediately after the war, or simply because they preferred certain amenities in these buildings such as high ceilings or a garden.↩

24.Erik André Andersen argues that property restitution was also carried out for clear ethnopolitical reasons, i.e., as a way of further marginalizing the Russian minority population. However, in my view this argument overlooks the point that by definition restitution could only have involved in the main ethnic Estonians, since they were the ones who had owned the property before the Soviet occupation itself. For Andersen’s version, see Erik André Andersen The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995 // Europe-Asia Studies. 1997. Vol. 49. Pp. 303-316.↩

25.Edgar Mattiisen. Eesti-Vene Piir. Tallinn, 1993.↩

26.In formal terms, the transfer took place on the basis of decrees “passed” by the Estonian and Russian Supreme Soviet Presidiums.↩

27.Eesti Kongress. Eesti Kongressi otsus riigipiirist // Eve Pärnaste (Ed.). Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 1991.↩

28.These groups represented a special ethnic group known as the Setu, who were a blend of Russian and Finnic cultures on the southeast border of Estonia. They were also known as strong supporters of Estonian independence.↩

29.Riigikogu. Eesti Vabariigi ja Vene Föderatsiooni vahelise Eesti–Vene riigipiiri lepingu ning Eesti Vabariigi ja Vene Föderatsiooni vahelise Narva ja Soome lahe merealade piiritlemise lepingu ratifitseerimise seadus // Riigi Teataja. RTII, 2005, 11 July, 18, 59.↩

30.See also Vello Pettai. Narratives and Political Development in the Baltic States: History Revised and Improvised // Ab Imperio. 2004. No. 1. Pp. 405-33.↩

31.The Pro Patria coalition included the main leaders of the Estonian Heritage Society, Trivimi Velliste, as well as the leaders of Estonian Christian Union, Illar Hallaste and Mart Laar. The Estonian National Independence Party was led by Tunne Kelam.↩

32.Most prominent among them was Marju Lauristin.↩

33.Vello Pettai. Estonia: Old Maps and New Roads // Journal of Democracy. 1993. Vol. 4. Pp. 81-90.↩

34.In those elections, the winner was the centrist Latvia’s Way party, which was an amalgamation of former Latvia Popular Front leaders, business leaders and émigré Latvians.↩

35.A reference to Stein Rokkan, the well-known Norwegian political scientist and examiner of state formation and social cleavages in Western Europe. See his works in Peter Flora. State formation, nation-building, and mass politics in Europe: the theory of Stein Rokkan based on his collected works. Oxford, 1999.↩

36.Marju Lauristin. Marju Lauristin: elus juhtub täpselt see, mis juhtub // Postimees. 1991. July 24.↩

37.Vello Pettai. Estonia: Positive and Negative Engineering // Alex Pravda and Jan Zielonka (Ed.). Institutional Engineering in Eastern Europe. Oxford, 2001.↩

38.Marju Lauristin. Marju Lauristin // Eve Pärnaste (Ed.). Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 2000.↩

39.Arend Lijphart. Democracy in Plural Societies: a Comparative Exploration. New Haven, 1977; Arend Lijphart. Patterns of Democracy: Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-six Countries. New Haven, 1999.↩

40.Mart Laar, Urmas Ott and Sirje Endre. Teine Eesti: Eesti iseseisvuse taassünd, 1986-1991. Tallinn, 1996; Sirje Kiin. Eesti Kongress. Nii nagu see oli // Eve Pärnaste (Ed.). Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 2000; Lauri Vahtre. Vabanemine. Tallinn, 1996; Viktor Niitsoo. Müürimurdjad, MRP-AEG ja ERSP lugu. Tallinn, 2002..↩

41.Eve Pärnaste. Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 2000; Eve Pärnaste and Viktor Niitsoo. Kogumik "MRP-AEG Infobülletään 1987-1988". Tallinn, 1998.↩

42.Tunne Kelam. Tunne Kelam: eluloointervjuu, valik artikleid ja esinemisi. Tallinn, 1999; as well as the dozens of interview transcripts and personal reflections contained in Mart Laar, Urmas Ott and Sirje Endre. Teine Eesti: Eesti iseseisvuse taassünd, 1986-1991. Tallinn, 1996 and Eve Pärnaste. Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 2000.↩

43.See Küllo Arjakas and Vilja Laanaru. Rahvarinne. Tallinn, 1998. Moreover, a scholarly analysis published in the Estonian journal Akadeemia by Lauristin and Vihalemm is in fact merely an Estonian-language version of an English-language work published a year earlier. Compare Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm. Postkommunistlik siirdeaeg // Akadeemia. 1998. Vol. 10. Pp. 675-701 and Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm. Recent Historical Developments in Estonia: Three Stages of Transition (1987-1997) // Marju Lauristin, Peeter Vihalemm, Karl Erik Rosengren and Lennart Weibull (Ed.). Return to the Western World: Cultural and Political Perspectives on the Estonian Post-Communist Transition. Tartu, 1997. Lastly, in contrast to the existence of two comprehensive anthologies covering all of the documents of the dissident grouping MRP-AEG and of the Congress of Estonia, respectively, no comparable collection has been compiled on the Popular Front except a limited circulation compendium from May 1990, which obviously lacks the Front’s later documents. See Küllo Arjakas. Vabaduse ja demokraatia teel, Kaks aastat Eestimaa Rahvarinnet. Tallinn, 1990. Indeed, all of this stands in interesting contrast to the emerging historiography of Latvia’s re-independence struggle, in which quite contrarily the moderates have dominated over the restorationists. See Valdis Bluzma, Ojars Celle, Talavs Jundzis, Dietrich A. Lebers, Egils Levits and Lubova Zile. Latvijas valsts atjaunosana. 1986.-1993. Riga, 1998; Dainis Ivans. Gadijuma karakalps. Riga, 1995; Janis Skapars. Latvijas Tautas Fronte. Riga, 1998; Sandra Kalniete. Es lauzu, tu lauzi, mes lauzam, vini luza. Riga, 2000; Janis Freimanis. Visu veju virpuli: LTF kareivja-zinatnieka acim. Riga, 2002; Talavs Jundzis. 4. maijs: Rakstu, atminu un dokumentu krajums par Neatkaribas deklaraciju. Riga, 2000; vs. Elmars Pelkaus. Tauta. Zeme. Valts: Latvijas Nacionalas neatkaribas kustiba dokumentos. Riga, 1995.↩

44.20. augusti klubi and Riigikogu kantselei. Kaks otsustavat päeva Toompeal, 19.-20. august 1991. Tallinn, 1996., Kadri Must. Iseseisvuspäeva sünd. Tartu, 2000.↩

45.Sirje Kiin. Eesti Kongress. Nii nagu see oli // Eve Pärnaste (Ed.). Eesti Kongress: Siis ja praegu. Tallinn, 2000. P. 135.↩

46.Ibid. P. 138.↩

47.See, for example, Peeter Järvelaid and Maie Pihlamägi. 80 aastat Eesti Vabariigi Justiitsministeeriumi 1918-1998. Tallinn, 1999, where already in the title (“80 years of the Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Estonia”) there is an ambiguity as how this can also include the Soviet era and still represent the Republic of Estonia.↩

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Конструирование государственной идентичности и его последствия: юридический реставрационизм в Эстонии

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