2/2008 Gardening the Imperial Subject: Intimate and Collective in the Imperial Space

Мечты о рае. Создание советского форпоста во Вьетнаме

Туонг Ву

2/2008

Материал публикуется на английском (на английской части сайта)

SUMMARY:

В статье Туонга Ву рассматривается проблема восприятия вьетнамскими революционерами и интеллектуалами 1920–1930-х гг. Советского Союза. Переосмысливая традиционный подход, в рамках которого взаимоотношения советской империи и стран третьего мира рассматриваются с точки зрения внешнеполитического доминирования, Ву раскрывает процесс конструирования образа СССР вьетнамскими интеллектуалами как результат сложной динамики, в которой колониальное прошлое Вьетнама играло особую роль. Образ СССР в текстах вьетнамских интеллектуалов и революционеров отражал не только видение современности, социальной справедливости и технологического прогресса (лаборатория революции и социализма), но и становился своего рода Иным колониальных западных империй, под господством которых находился Вьетнам. По мнению автора, несмотря на асимметрию взаимоотношений вьетнамских революционеров и Советского Союза, вьетнамские интеллектуалы отказывались видеть в этих отношениях какую-либо новую форму колониальной зависимости. По мнению автора, его подход позволяет продемонстрировать субъектность интеллектуалов стран третьего мира во взаимоотношениях с СССР и показать их активную роль в историческом процессе деколонизации и возникновения независимых государств третьего мира.

1.For a survey, see Robert McMahon. US-Vietnamese Relations: A Historiographical Survey // Warren Cohen (Ed.). Pacific Passage. New York, 1996.↩

2.E.g. see Mark Bradley. Imagining Vietnam & America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam 1919-1950. Chapel Hill, 2000.↩

3.Ilya Gaiduk. The Soviet Union and the Vietnam War. Chicago, 1996; Gaiduk. Confronting Vietnam: Soviet Policy toward the Indochina Conflict, 1954-1963. Washington, DC, 2003; Mari Olsen. Soiet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China, 1949-64. New York, 2006.↩

4.See Douglas Pike. Vietnam and the Soviet Union: Anatomy of an Alliance. Boulder, 1987; Ramesh Thakur and Carlyle Thayer. Soviet Relations with India and Vietnam. London, 1992.↩

5.George Kahin. Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam. New York, 1986; Marilyn Young. The Vietnam Wars, 1945-1990. New York, 1990; Bradley. Imagining Vietnam & America; George Herring. America’s Longest War, 4th edition. New York, 2002.↩

6.For their deep commitments to cultural reforms, see Kim Ninh. A World Transformed: The Politics of Culture in Revolutionary Vietnam, 1945-1965. Ann Arbor, 2002; for their dogged efforts at rural collectivization, see Benedict Kerkvliet. The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants Transformed National Policy. Ithaca, 2005; for efforts to defend the communist doctrine at home and to promote it abroad during 1940-1960, see Tuong Vu. From Cheering to Volunteering: Vietnamese Communists and the Arrival of the Cold War, 1940-1951 // Christopher Goscha and Christian Ostermann (Eds.). Connecting Histories: The Cold War and Decolonization in Asia (1945-1962). Stanford, forthcoming; and Vu. To Be Patriotic Is to Build Socialism: Communist Ideology and Identity in the Vietnamese Civil War / Paper presented at the Conference on The Cold War in Asia: The Cultural Dimension. March 24-25, 2008. Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore.↩

7.See Vu. To Be Patriotic Is to Build Socialism.↩

8.David Marr. Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945. Berkeley, 1981. Pp. 3-8.↩

9.Ibid.↩

10.Benedict Anderson. Imagined Communities. London, 1991. For Vietnam, see William Duiker. The Rise of Nationalism in Vietnam, 1900-1941. Ithaca, 1976; and Christopher Goscha. Vietnam or Indochina: Contesting Concepts of Space in Vietnamese Nationalism, 1887-1954. Copenhagen, 1995.↩

11.David Marr. Vietnamese Anticolonialism. Berkeley, 1971. Chapters 4-7; Marr. Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-1945; and Bradley. Imagining Vietnam & America. Chapter 1.↩

12.This is an argument made by many Vietnamese official historians. See, for example, Minh Tranh. Chung run so truoc anh huong cua Cach mang Thang Muoi toi Viet Nam [They trembled with the influence of the October Revolution in Vietnam]. Hanoi, 1958.↩

13.Nam Phong no. 7. Talk of the Day column [Muc Thoi Dam]. December 20, 1917 to January 20, 1918, cited in Minh Tranh. Chung run so truoc anh huong cua Cach mang Thang Muoi toi Viet Nam. P. 13.↩

14.“Van de Tay-ba-loi-a” [The Siberian Problem]. Nam Phong no. 14. August, 1918. Cited in Minh Tranh. Chung run so truoc anh huong cua Cach mang Thang Muoi. Pp. 18-19.↩

15.Phan Boi Chau. Phan Boi Chau Nien Bieu [The Timeline of Phan Boi Chau’s Career] // Chuong Thau (Ed.). Phan Boi Chau Toan Tap [Complete Works by Phan Boi Chau]. Vol. 6. Hanoi. Pp. 251-252.↩

16.Phan Boi Chau. Luoc truyen Liet Ninh, vi nhan cua nuoc Nga Do [A brief story about Lenin, the great man of Red Russia] // Chuong Thau (Ed.). Phan Boi Chau Toan Tap. Vol. 5. Pp. 317-323.↩

17.Phan Chau Trinh. Thu gui Nguyen Ai Quoc. February 18, 1922 // Chuong Thau et al. (Eds.). Phan Chau Trinh Toan Tap [Complete Works by Phan Chau Trinh]. Vol. 3. Da Nang, 2005. Pp. 99-104.↩

18.See Sophie Quinn-Judge. Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years 1919-1941. Berkeley, 2002. Pp. 31-32.↩

19.There is no formal record of his registration at the school although several sources suggest he attended some training there. See Quinn-Judge. Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years. Pp. 54-55.↩

20.Southern China by the mid-1920s was “an anti-imperialist Mecca” for East and Southeast Asian dissidents (Marr. Vietnamese Anticolonialism. P. 259). See Quinn-Judge. Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years. Chapter 3, for a recent analysis of politics in southern China among various anti-French Vietnamese groups.↩

21.Nguyen Ai Quoc. Le-Nin va phuong Dong [Lenin and the East]. 1926 / Translated from Russian. Reprinted in Ho Chi Minh. Ket hop chat che long yeu nuoc voi tinh than quoc te vo san [Combining patriotism with proletarian internationalism]. Hanoi, 1976. Pp. 63-66.↩

22.Nguyen Ai Quoc. Cach mang Nga voi cac dan toc thuoc dia [The Russian revolution and the colonized nations]. 1925 // Ban an che do thuc dan Phap [Verdict on the French colonial regime]. Reprinted in Ho Chi Minh. Ket hop chat che long yeu nuoc voi tinh than quoc te vo san. Pp. 57-62.↩

23.Ibid. P. 61.↩

24.In its early years (1921-1924), the University of Toilers of the East was staffed by many Muslim “national communists” who attempted “to reconcile the conflicting and often contradictory ideological trends of their environment – bolshevism, menshevism, anarchism – with their radical nationalism;” see Alexander Bennigsen and Enders Wimbush. Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World. Chicago, 1979. Pp. 15 & 110. There are two reasons why these national communists had limited, if any, influence on Nguyen Ai Quoc and other Vietnamese after him. First, Nguyen Ai Quoc’s time at the University was short and he was not formally enrolled. As Bennigsen and Wimbush argue, the Muslim national communists’ acceptance of Marxism and the equation of anti-imperialism and Soviet power existed “only in a superficial sense,” primarily because they were impressed by the success of the Bolsheviks in seizing power (Ibid. P. 30). Sultan Galiev, the foremost thinker among these Muslim communists, maintained that “[a]ll Muslim colonized peoples are proletarian peoples and as almost all classes in Muslim societies have been oppressed by the colonialists, all classes have the right to be called “proletarians” (Ibid. P. 42). As Nguyen Ai Quoc’s writing about the Russian, French and American revolutions discussed below testifies, he was much more ideologically committed than Sultan Galiev was. The second reason the Muslim national communists perhaps had little influence on Vietnamese communists is because they gradually lost their roles at the University after three purges in 1924, 1927 and 1930 (Ibid. P. 110). Most were to be executed by Stalin by the mid-1930s. Before 1924, Nguyen Ai Quoc was the only Vietnamese student at the University. The next group of Vietnamese students arrived in 1927-1928 and most Muslim national communists would have been purged by then.↩

25.Tran Dan Tien (Ho Chi Minh). Nhung mau chuyen ve doi hoat dong cua Ho Chu tich [Stories about the life and career of Chairman Ho]. Hanoi, 1976. P. 59. This book was first published in China in 1948 and in Paris in 1949. In the book Ho Chi Minh also described in detail and with admiration Soviet collective farms, child care and the social system, but he must have recalled his observations in the 1930s, not those he made in the 1920s when he was there the first time. Ibid. Pp. 59-63.↩

26.Nguyen Ai Quoc. Duong Kach Menh [The Revolutionary Path]. 1927. Reprinted in Van Kien Dang Toan Tap [Collected Party Documents] (hereafter VKDTT). Vol. 1. Hanoi, 2005. P. 39.↩

27.Ibid. P. 31. Nguyen Ai Quoc also reportedly wrote a booklet entitled “Nhat ky chim tau” [Diary of a shipwreck] in which he told the story of three young men landing on the shores of the Soviet Union after a shipwreck and being marveled at the society without exploitation of men by men there. This booklet was said to circulate illegally in Vietnam in the late 1920s but I was unable to find it. See Nguyen Duy Trinh. Chien dau duoi co Xo Viet Nghe Tinh [Fighting under the banners of the Nghe-Tinh Soviets] // Hoi Ky Cach Mang tuyen chon [Selected Revolutionary Memoirs]. Hanoi, 1995. P. 179, who claimed to read the booklet. Nguyen Duy Trinh was a participant in the Nghe-Tinh Soviet movement and later became Minister of Foreign Affairs of the DRV. In his report to the Comintern, Nguyen Ai Quoc also mentioned this booklet. Quinn-Judge. Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years 1919-1941. P. 177.↩

28.Le Thanh Hien (Ed.). Tuyen Tap Tran Dinh Long [Tran Dinh Long’s Selected Works]. Hanoi, 2000. The memoir was published during 1938-1939 under the title of “Ba nam o nuoc Nga Xo Viet” [My three years in the Soviet Union]. Tran Dinh Long became an important official in the Viet Minh government in 1945 before he was allegedly abducted and killed in late 1945 by agents of the Vietnamese Nationalist Party.↩

29.M. Levin. Society, State, and Ideology during the First Five-Year Plan // Sheila Fitzpatrick (Ed.). Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931. Bloomington, 1978. Pp. 41-77.↩

30.Sheila Fitzpatrick. Cultural Revolution as Class War // Fitzpatrick (Ed.). Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931. P. 11.↩

31.Le Thanh Hien (Ed.). Tuyen Tap Tran Dinh Long. Pp. 35-38.↩

32.Ibid. P. 44.↩

33.Ibid. Pp. 45-46.↩

34.Ibid. P. 56.↩

35.Ibid. Pp. 58-61.↩

36.Ibid. P. 58.↩

37.Ibid. Pp. 66-67.↩

38.Ibid. Pp. 73-78.↩

39.Ibid. P. 125.↩

40.Ibid. P. 127.↩

41.Ibid. Pp. 134-137; and Pp. 143-144.↩

42.Ibid. P. 143.↩

43.Ibid. P. 135.↩

44.Ibid. P. 136.↩

45.Terry Martin. The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalisms in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939. Ithaca, 2001.↩

46.Ibid. Pp. 68-69.↩

47.Ibid. Pp. 78-79.↩

48.Ibid. Pp. 88-90.↩

49.Ibid. Pp. 90-92.↩

50.Ibid. Pp. 93-95.↩

51.Ibid. Pp. 95-103.↩

52.Ibid. Pp. 83-85.↩

53.Ibid. Pp. 86-87. In original, “toi da” in the sense of “at most” was perhaps a typo.↩

54.Literally means “darkness.”↩

55.During the First Five-Year Plan, Soviet cities grew by 44% while their salaried labor force increased by about 12 million. Moscow and Leningrad each received an influx of 3.5 million peasant migrants during this period. See Lewin. Society, State, and Ideology during the First Five-Year Plan. Pp. 53-54.↩

56.See Tran Cung and Trinh Dinh Cuu. Mot vai net ve chi bo dau tien cua Dang va ve Dong Duong Cong San Dang [On the first Party cell and the Indochinese Communist Party] // Hoi Ky Cach Mang tuyen chon. P. 165.↩

57.To those who read French, there were numerous works by French authors or works translated into French on Marxism and on the Soviet Union. These books were never banned in South Vietnam, and were allowed in North and Central Vietnam in the mid-1930s. See Tran Van Giau. Su phat trien cua tu tuong o Viet Nam tu the ky XIX den Cach mang thang Tam [The development of Vietnamese thoughts from the 19th century to the August Revolution]. Vol. 3. Ho Chi Minh City, 1993. P. 86.↩

58.See Arif Dirlik. The Origins of Chinese Communism. New York, 1989.↩

59.Huynh Kim Khanh. Vietnamese Communism 1925-1945. Ithaca, 1982; and Quinn-Judge. Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years 1919-1941.↩

60.Cac anh em chi em tho thuyen va dan cay! [To our brothers and sisters, workers and peasants!]. July 31, 1929 // VKDTT. Vol. 1. P. 235.↩

61.Mot so loi keu goi [Some calls for action]. 1929 // VKDTT. Vol. 1. Pp. 232-233.↩

62.Cac anh em chi em tho thuyen va dan cay! P. 223.↩

63.8 thang 3, ngay Quoc te phu nu [March 8th, the International Women’s Day]. February 22, 1931 // VKDTT. Vol. 3. Pp. 59-68.↩

64.Ibid. Pp. 63-64.↩

65.“Cac anh em chi em tho thuyen va dan cay!” and “Mot so loi keu goi.”↩

66.Cac anh em chi em tho thuyen va dan cay! Pp. 224-225.↩

67.Hoi anh chi em tho thuyen dan cay… [To our brothers and sisters, workers and peasants…]. January 1931 // VKDTT. Vol. 3. Pp. 17-18; Tieng goi cua Dang Cong San Dong Duong [The call from the Indochinese Communist Party]. January 21, 1931 // Ibid. Pp. 19-21; Hoi anh chi em tho thuyen dan cay… [To our brothers and sisters, workers and peasants…]. No Date // Ibid. Pp. 22-23. Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg were also commemorated together with Lenin.↩

68.Nghi quyet chinh tri cua dai bieu Dai hoi (Congres) lan thu nhat Dang Cong San Dong Duong [Resolution of the First Congress of the Indochinese Communist Party]. March 27-31, 1935 // VKDTT. Vol. 5. P. 2.↩

69.The “dong” is the Vietnamese unit of currency.↩

70.Ibid.↩

71.Nghi quyet cua Hoi nghi Trung uong [Resolution of the Central Committee Plenum]. November 6-9, 1940 // VKDTT. Vol. 7. P. 33.↩

72.This agreement was signed by most Western European powers and was meant to prevent the Spanish Civil War from spreading over Europe.↩

73.Thu ngo gui nhom La Lutte [Open letter to the La Lutte group]. December 17, 1936 // Ha Huy Tap. Mot So Tac Pham [Ha Huy Tap’s Selected Works]. Hanoi, 2006. Pp. 507-508.↩

74.H. B. Phuong phap tranh dau giu vung hoa binh co hieu qua hon het va triet de hon het phai the nao? [What is the most effective and comprehensive method to struggle for peace?]. Dan Chung [The People]. November 5, 1938 // Bao Dan Chung 1938-1939. Vol. 2. Pp. 14-18.↩

75.Lien bang Xo-Viet voi hoa binh [The Soviet Union and peace]. Dan Chung. November 23, 1938.↩

76.Nghi quyet cua Hoi nghi Trung uong (Resolution of the Central Committee Plenum). November 6-9, 1940 // VKDTT. Vol. 7. P. 32.↩

77.Ibid. P. 34.↩

78.Nghi quyet cua Ban Thuong vu Trung uong [Resolution of the Standing Committee of the Central Committee]. February 25-28, 1943 // VKDTT. Vol. 7. P. 278.↩

79.Phai ung ho Lien Bang Xo Viet [We have to support the Soviet Union]. October 31, 1941 // VKDTT. Vol. 7. Pp. 203-5. See also Nghi quyet cua Hoi nghi can bo toan xu Bac ky [Resolution of the Tonkin Cadre Meeting]. September 25-27, 1941 // VKDTT. Vol. 7. Pp. 189-90.↩

80.Nga-Duc chien tranh [Russia-Germany war] // Viet Nam Doc Lap. No. 109. October 21, 1941. In the introduction to a recently published volume that contains the entire collection of Viet Nam Doc Lap at the Revolutionary Museum in Hanoi, its director Pham Mai Hung writes that Ho founded the journal in August 1941 and from then until August 1942 when he left for China, he was its editor in chief, main contributor, often illustrator and printer. Bao Tang Cach Mang Viet Nam. Bao Viet Nam Doc Lap 1941-1945 [The Viet Nam Doc Lap newspaper 1941-1945]. Hanoi, 2000. The style of this article suggests it was likely written by Ho Chi Minh.↩

81.B. V. Nga la nuoc the nao? // Viet Nam Doc Lap. No. 126. July 11, 1942. This article was also likely to have been written by Ho Chi Minh. The use of “Nga” (Russia) instead of “Lien Xo” (the Soviet Union) in this context perhaps indicated the writer’s effort to talk in the language of ordinary people. “Nga” is Vietnamized to a greater extent and more commonly used word than “Lien Xo,” which also sounds very formal. This usage should not be interpreted as reflecting the Russo-centric turn in the USSR at the time.↩

82.The Vietnamese government has released letters Ho sent to Truman, but has not done so with his letters to Stalin.↩

83.See Christopher Goscha. Courting Diplomatic Disaster? The Difficult Integration of Vietnam into the International Communist Movement, 1945-50 // Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 2006. Vol. 1. No. 1-2. Pp. 59-103.↩

84.Ibid.↩

85.This is according to Maurice Thorez cited in Gaiduk. Confronting Vietnam. P. 3.↩

86.See Vu. From Cheering to Volunteering: Vietnamese Communists and the Arrival of the Cold War.↩

87.For a discussion of Soviet-DRV relations during 1945-1952 see Gaiduk. Confronting Vietnam. Pp. 1-11.↩

88.See Thang Huu Nghi Viet-Trung-Xo voi nguoi tri thuc Viet nam [The Vietnamese-Chinese-Soviet friendship month to Vietnamese intellectuals]. Dang Xa Hoi Viet Nam, 1954. Nguyen Van Thom (perhaps a pseudonym of Ho Chi Minh). Duong di muon dam [A very long, long journey]. Hanoi, 1954; Chung toi tham Lien Xo [We visited the Soviet Union]. Hanoi, 1956; Minh Tranh. Tham nong thon Lien Xo [Visiting rural Soviet Union]. Hanoi, 1956; Tran Luc (Ho Chi Minh). Lien Xo vi dai [The great Soviet Union]. Hanoi, 1957; and Thep Moi. Nhu anh em mot nha [Like brothers in the same family]. Hanoi, 1958.↩

89.The Lu. Cam tuong dau tien [The first feelings]. July 21, 1955 // Chung toi tham Lien Xo. P. 17.↩

90.Tu Mo. Lien Xo: Dang phuc, dang yeu (The Soviet Union: To be admired and loved). // Chung toi tham Lien Xo. Pp. 22-27.↩

91.Ibid. P. 26.↩

92.Nguyen Huy Tuong. Nhat Ky [Diary] (preserved by Trinh Thi Uyen and edited by Nguyen Huy Thang). Hanoi, 2006. Vol. 3. Pp. 57-58.↩

93.Ibid. Pp. 51-52.↩

94.Minh Tranh. Nhung tac pham cua V. Lenin o nuoc ta [V. Lenin’s works (published) in our country] // Hoc Tap. April 1960. Pp. 24-25.↩

95.Calculated based on Bao cao ve ke hoach nha nuoc nam 1957 [Report on the state plan of 1957] // VKDTT. Vol. 18. P. 179; and Chi thi cua Ban Bi Thu ve cong tac xuat ban [Instructions of the Party Secretariat on the task of publication]. November 23, 1959 // VKDTT, Vol. 20. P. 911.↩

96.See the collection of these articles: C. B. [Ho Chi Minh]. Lien Xo Vi Dai [The Soviet Union is Great]. Hanoi, 1956.↩

97.C.B. Chuc mung Quan doi [Congratulations to the [Red] Army] // Nhan Dan. February 25, 1955. Reprinted in C.B. Lien Xo Vi Dai. Pp. 9-10.↩

98.There were efforts to fabricate and mythologize history as in the case of Ton Duc Thang, but these do not invalidate the true encounters or experiences of others. See Christoph Giebel. Imagined Ancestries of Vietnamese Communism: Ton Duc Thang and the Politics of History and Memory. Seattle, 2004.↩

Ab Imperio

Ab Imperio

Мечты о рае. Создание советского форпоста во Вьетнаме

Сноски

Примечания