1/2003 Russian Empire: Boundaries and Frontiers

“Мы приднестровцы!” Постсоветское манипулирование социальной идентичностью в долине Днестра

Стефан Трёбст

1/2003

Публикуется на английском.

SUMMARY:

В своей статье Стефан Требст констатирует, что провозглашенная в 1990 году на востоке Республики Молдова сепаратистская Приднестровская Молдавская Республика держится на следующих основаниях: политическая воля региональной элиты, стремящейся к сохранению своей власти и привилегий; экономический потенциал этого высоко индустриального региона; вооруженные силы сепаратистского движения, созданные с помощью Москвы; ряд новых социальных факторов, сформировавшихся за двенадцать лет независимой государственности. Начиная с середины 1990-х гг. стало очевидным наличие еще одного основания – новой приднестровской идентичности, которая возникла в результате региональной политики идентичности, направленной на создание “приднестровского народа”. Требст называет эту политику “политикой истории”, основные категории которой (геополитика, язык, культура и религия) восходят к великорусскому историческому нарративу. Создаваемый новый приднестровский исторический мастер-нарратив начинается с древнейших времен, в то время как культура исторической памяти фиксируется на “героических” первых годах независимости, параллельно создавая куль личности президента Приднестровской Молдавской Республики Игоря Смирнова. Статистические опросы населения и результаты выборов демонстрируют, что относительное большинство населения республики рассматривает себя как приднепровский demos.

1.My – pridnestrovtsy! Nas ne lishit’ istorii, imeni, rodnogo iazyka, natsional’noi kul’tury. PMR tomu garantiia. Inscription in golden letters on red velvet in the Museum of History and Regional Geography of Bendery (Benderskii istoriko-kraevedcheskii muzei).↩

2.Scott Pegg. International Security and the De Facto State. Aldershot, 1998; Pål Kolstø. Unrecognized States Vs. Quasi-States in International Relations. MS, January 2003; and Vladimir Kolossov, John O’Loughlin. Pseudo-States as Harbingers of a New Geopolitics: The Example of the Transdniestr Moldovan Republik (TMR) // D. Newman (Ed.). Boundaries, Territories and Postmodernity. London, 1999. Pp. 151-176. See also Anne Nivat. We Have All the Attributes of a Normal State. [Interview with] the vice president of the self-proclaimed Dniester Moldovan Republic, Aleksandr Karaman. Tiraspol, 12 July. // Transition. 1996. Vol. 2. No. 17, 23 August. P. 29.↩

3.On the TMR see Klemens Büscher. Separatismus in Transnistrien. Die “PMR” zwischen Rußland und Moldova // Osteuropa. 1996. Bd. 46. S. 860-875; Frank-Dieter Grimm. Transnistrien – ein postsowjetische Relikt mit ungewissen Perspektiven // Europa Regional. 1997. Bd. 5. H. 2. S. 23-34; Pål Kolstø, Andrei Malgin. The Transnistrian Republic: A Case of Politicized Regionalism // Nationalities Papers. 1998. Vol. 26. Pp. 103-127; Stuart J. Kaufman. Modern Hatreds. The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca, NY, London, 2001. Pp. 129-163 and 241-247; Stefan Troebst. Frozen and Forgotten: The Dniester Conflict, 1989-2002 // European Yearbook of Minority Issues. 2003. Vol. 2 (forthcoming); as well as the collection of documents Nepriznannaia respublika. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika / Edited by V. F. Gryzlova i M. N. Guboglo. 5 volumes. Moscow, 1997-1999.↩

4.In the following, names of places under control of TMR authorities are given in their Russian form, names of places under control of the Moldovan government in Moldovan/Romanian form with the Russian or Moldovan/Romanian equivalent in brackets.↩

5.Oliver Hoischen. Transnistrien ist zu einer Grauzone zwischen Ost und West geworden // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. No. 225. 28. September 1999. S. 3; Matthias Rüb. Das kleine Königreich des kleinen Lenin. Ibid. 2001. No. 7. 9 January. S. 6.↩

6.Walter Mayr. Stalins letzte Kolonie // Der Spiegel. 2000. No. 40. 2 October. S. 223.↩

7.R. S. S. Mancurtă in the Moldovan/Romanian original alludes to Chingiz T. Aitmatov‘s Kazakh legend of the Mankurts. See Nicolae Dabija. Moldova de peste Nistru – vechi pămînt strămoşesc. Chişinău, 1990. P. 4.↩

8.Elfie Siegl. Der mühselige Weg der kleinen Moldau-Republik aus der Krise // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2001. No. 281. 3 December. S. 18.↩

9.Anatolij Gudym. Evolution of the Transnistrian Economy: Critical Appraisal. Chişinău, 2001. http://www.cisr-md.org/reports/cont-transn.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003.). For an official portrayal of TMR industry see A. Palamar’, N. Yelagin. Izgotovleno v Pridnestrov’e. Reklamno-informacionnyi spravochnik. Tiraspol’, 2000.↩

10.Michael Wines. Trans-Dniester ‘Nation’ Resents Shady Reputation // The New York Times. 2002. 5 March. P. 3. http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/statehood/expment/2002/0305trans.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

11.Claus Neukirch. Die Republik Moldau. Nations- und Staatsbildung in Osteuropa. Münster, 1996; and Charles King. The Moldovans. Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture. Stanford, CA, 1999.↩

12.Nu vrem să fim romani! Cf. N. V. Babilunga, S. I. Beril, B. G. Bomeshko, I. N. Galinskii, V. R. Okushko, P. M. Shornikov. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Tiraspol’, 2000. P. 152.↩

13.Chemodan – vokzal – Rossiia! Cf. I. F. Selivanova. Pridnestrovskii konflikt i problemy ego uregulirovaniia // Ėtnopoliticheskie konflikty v postkommunisticheskom mire. Part II. Moskow, 1996. P. 4.↩

14.William Crowther. The Politics of Ethno-National Mobilization: Nationalism and Reform in Soviet Moldavia // The Russian Review. 1991. Vol. 50. P. 189. See also King. The Moldovans. Pp. 178-208; Anatol Tsaranu. Pridnestrovskii konflikt v Respublike Moldova: protivostoianie identichnostei? // Valeriu Moşneaga (Ed.). Moldova între Est şi Vest: Identitatea naţională şi orientarea europeană. Al II-lea simpozion ştiinţific moldo-german. Republica Moldova, Chişinău, 28 October – 1 November 2001. Chişinău, 2001. P. 255-273; Nikolai V. Babilunga, Boris G. Bomeshko. Pridnestrovskii konflikt: Istoricheskie, demograficheskie, politicheskie aspekty. Tiraspol, 1998; Gottfried Hanne. Der Transnistrien-Konflikt: Ursachen, Entwicklungsbedingungen und Perspektiven einer Regulierung (Reihe “Berichte des Bundesinstitut für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien”. No. 42/1998). Köln, 1998. S. 3; Petr M. Shornikov. Pokushenie na status. Ėtnopoliticheskie protsessy v Moldavii v gody krizisa 1988-1996. Kishinev, 1997; Airat R. Aklaev. Dynamics of the Moldova-Trans-Dniester Ethnic Conflict (Late 1980s to Early 1990s) // Kumar Rupesinghe and Valery A. Tishkov (Eds.). Ethnicity and Power in the Contemporary World. Tokyo, 1996. Pp. 83-115; Pål Kolstø & Andrei Edemsky with Natalya Kalashnikova. The Dniester Conflict. Between Irredentism and Separatism // Europe-Asia Studies. 1993. Vol. 45. Pp. 973-1000; and Andrew Williams. Conflict Resolution After the Cold War: The Case of Moldova // Review of International Studies. 1999. Vol. 25. Pp. 71-87.↩

15.Alla I. Skvorţova. Transnistrian People - an Identity of Its Own? // Moldovan Academic Review. 2002. Vol. 1. No. 1 (Special Topic Issue “Dniestria: From Past to Future”). http://www.iatp.md/academicreview/1/en/article2.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

16.Pentru ca să fii ministru, tre’ să fii de peste Nistru! Quoted in Igor Munteanu. Social Multipolarity and Political Violence // Pål Kolstø (Ed.). National Integration and Violent Conflict in Post-Soviet Societies: The Cases of Estonia and Moldova. Boulder, CO, 2003 (forthcoming).↩

17.For the Soiuz Moldovan see V. N. Yakovlev. Ternistyi put’ k spravedlivosti. Tiraspol’, 1993. Yakovlev, in 1991 the founding rector of the TMR State University in Tiraspol’ and since the late 1990s a political émigré in the Russian Federation, probably qualifies for another Moldovan proverb: Mama rus, tata rus, dar Ivan moldovan! (“Mom is Russian, dad is Russian, yet little Ivan is a Moldovan!”). Cf. Silvia Matteucci. Identita nazionale e conflitto in Moldavia: Questione etnica o politica? // Silvia Matteucci (a cura di). Il nazionalismo. Culture politiche, mediazione e conflitto. (Series “Collana di studi sui Balcani e l'Europa Centro-Orientale”. 12). Ravenna, 2000. P. 155↩

18.Vladimir Solonari, Vladimir Bruter. Russians in Moldova // Vladimir Shlapentokh, Munir Sendich, Emil Payin (Eds.). The New Russian Diaspora. Russian Minorities in the Former Soviet Republics. Armonk, NY, London, 1994. P. 76.↩

19.T. G. Deinenko et al. Igor’ Nikolaevich Smirnov. Bibliograficheskii ukazatel’. Tiraspol’, 2001. Pp. 3-4. See also the “official” biography of Smirnov by Anna Z. Volkova. Lider. Tiraspol’, 2001. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/soderjanie.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

20.Klemens Büscher. Die ‘Staatlichkeit’ Transnistriens - ein Unfall der Geschichte? Beitrag für das Projekt ‘Die zweite nationale Wiedergeburt’. Nationalismus, nationale Bewegungen und Nationalstaatsbildungen in der spät- und postkommunistischen Gesellschaft / MS., paper given at the conference at the University of Mannheim, Germany, February 20-22, 1998. P. 2. See also Idem. Transnationale Beziehungen der Russen in Moldova und der Ukraine. Ethnische Diaspora zwischen Residenz- und Referenzstaat (Reihe “Gesellschaften und Staaten im Epochenwandel”. Bd. 10). Frankfurt/M. etc., 2003 (forthcoming).↩

21.Büscher. Staatlichkeit. P. 2. See also Constantin Chiroşca. Ideologia Transnistreană // Arena Politicii. 1997. No. 10. Pp. 21-22.↩

22.Büscher. Staatlichkeit. P. 17. On the beginnings of industrialization, urbanization, Sovietization and Russification of Transnistria in the period 1950-1967 as well as on the emergence of an allochthone, multiethnic elite see the case study by Ronald J. Hill. Soviet Political Elites. The Case of Tiraspol. London, 1977.↩

23.Recently, Alla Svorţova has pointed to another specific feature of the TMR elite during the hot phase of the conflict – their popularity and prestige with the population: “The Dniester leadership was for the most part composed of people who had long experience, such as directors of big enterprises, secretaries of Communist Party committees, and high officials in local administration and small towns. People knew their leaders not from newspapers or TV news but personally. They were used to listening to them, trusted them, were familiar with their previous work, and regarded them as seasoned leaders.” Cf. Alla Skvortsova. The Cultural and Social Makeup of Moldova: A Bipolar or Dispersed Society? // Kolstø (Ed.). National Integration and Violent Conflict.↩

24.Valerii Moshniaga. Vooruzhennyi konflikt v Respublike Moldova i problema peremeshchennych lits // Moldoscopie. Problemy politicheskogo analiza. Sbornik statei. T. VII. Kishinev, 1995. Pp. 82-126.↩

25.On the fighting in Bendery see [Erika Daley]. Human Rights in Moldova. The Turbulent Dniester. New York, NY, Washington, DC, 1993. Pp. 27-69; Neil V. Lamont. Territorial Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict. The Moldovan Case, 1991 – March 1993 // The Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 1993. Vol. 6. Pp. 576-612; Vladimir Socor. Russia’s Fourteenth Army and the Insurgency in Eastern Moldova // Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Report, 1992. Vol. 1. No. 36 (September 11, 1992). Pp. 41-48; and Doklad pravozashchitnogo tsentra “Memorial”: Massovye i naibolee ser’eznye narusheniia prav cheloveka i polozhenie v zone vooruzhennogo konflikta v g. Bendery za iiun’-iiul’ 1992 g // Nezavisimaia gazeta. September 22, 1992. Pp. 4-5. The ultimate account of the Bendery events of 1992 has, however, still to be written.↩

26.D. F. Kondratovich. Pridnestrovskaia revoliutsiia, 1989-1992 gg // Ezhegodnyi istoricheskii almanakh Pridnestrov’ia. 1999. T. 3. Pp. 23-25.↩

27.David D. Laitin. Identity in Formation. The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Near Abroad. Ithaca, NY, London, 1998. P. 330. Cf. also Idem. Secessionist Rebellion in the Former Soviet Union // Comparative Political Studies. 2001. Vol. 34. P. 841; and Louk Hagendoorn, Hub Linssen, Sergej Tumanov. Intergroup Relations in the States of the Former Soviet Union. The Perception of Russians. Philadelphia, PA, 2001. Pp. 70-72.↩

28.Uwe Halbach. Die Nationalitätenfrage: Kontinuität und Explosivität // Dietrich Geyer (Hrsg.). Die Umwertung der sowjetischen Geschichte. Göttingen, 1991. P. 211.↩

29.Dan Ionescu. Life in the Dniester ‘Black Hole’ // Transition. 1996. Vol. 2, No. 20 (October 4). Pp. 12-14.↩

30.Petra Bock, Edgar Wolfrum (Hrsg.). Umkämpfte Vergangenheit. Geschichtsbilder, Erinnerung und Vergangenheitspolitik im internationalen Vergleich. Göttingen, 1999. Back flap.↩

31.Petra Bock, Edgar Wolfrum. Einleitung // Ibid. S. 9.↩

32.Aleida Assmann, Ute Frevert. Geschichtsvergessenheit, Geschichtsversessenheit. Vom Umgang mit deutschen Vergangenheiten nach 1945. Stuttgart, 1999. S. 312.↩

33.Wolfgang Kaschuba. Geschichtspolitik und Identitätspolitik. Nationale und ethnische Diskurse im Kulturvergleich // Beate Binder, Wolfgang Kaschuba, Peter Niedermüller (Hrsg.). Die Inszenierung des Nationalen. Geschichte, Kultur und die Politik der Identitäten am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts (Reihe Alltag & Kultur. Vol. 7). Cologne, Weimar, Vienna, 2001. S. 24.↩

34.Beate Binder, Wolfgang Kaschuba, Peter Niedermüller. ‘Geschichtspolitik’: Zur Aktualität nationaler Identitätsdiskurse in europäischen Gesellschaften // Hartmut Kaelble, Jürgen Schreiner (Hrsg.). Gesellschaften im Vergleich. Forschungen aus Sozial- und Geschichtswissenschaft. Frankfurt/M., 1998. S. 465-508.↩

35.For recent case studies see Wilfried Jilge. Historical Memory and National Identity-Building in Ukraine since 1991 // Attila Pók, Jörn Rüsen, Jutta Scherrer (Eds.). European History: Challenge for a Common Future. Hamburg, 2002. Pp. 111-134; Hugh LeCaine Agnew. New States, Old Identities? The Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Historical Understandings of Statehood // Nationalities Papers. 2000. Vol. 28. Pp. 619-650; Wolfgang Höpken. Vergangenheitspolitik im sozialistischen Vielvölkerstaat: Jugoslawien 1944-1991 // Bock, Wolfrum (Hrsg.). Op. cit. S. 210-243; and Stefan Troebst. Geschichtspolitik und historische “Meistererzählungen” in Makedonien vor und nach 1991 // Österreichische Osthefte. 2002. Vol. 44. No. 1-2 (forthcoming).↩

36.Wim van Meurs. Carving a Moldovan Identity Out of History // Nationalities Papers. 1998. Vol. 26. Pp. 39-56; Charles King. Ethnicity and Institutional Reform: The Dynamics of ‘Indigenization’ in the Moldovan ASSR // Ibid. Pp. 57-72; Idem. The Moldovan ASSR on the Eve of the War: Cultural Policy in 1930s Transnistria // Kurt W. Treptow (Ed.). Romania and World War II. Iaşi, 1996. Pp. 9-36; Oleg Galushchenko. Naselenie Moldavskoi ASSR (1924-1940 gg.). Kishinev, 2001.↩

37.See Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 35-72, as well as Wim van Meurs. The Bessarabian Question in Communist Historiography: Nationalist and Communist Politics and History-Writing. Boulder, CO, New York, NY, 1994.↩

38.Kazachestvo. Nepriznannaia respublika. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. T. 5: Dokumenty obshchestvenno-politicheskich ob”edinenii Pridnestrov’ia // V. F. Gryzlova i M. N. Guboglo (Ed.). Moscow, 1994. Pp. 47-88. See also I. A. Antsupov. Kazachestvo rossiiskoe mezhdu Bugom i Dunaem. Kishinev, 2000.↩

39.Cf. Peter Holquist. From Estate to Ethnos: The Changing Nature of Cossack Identity in the Twentieth Century // Nurit Schliefman (Ed.). Russia at a Crossroads. History, Memory and Political Practice. London, Portland, OR, 1998; and Brian J. Boeck. The Kuban’ Cossack Revival (1989-1993): The Beginning of a Cossack National Movement in the North Caucasus Region // Nationalities Papers. 1998. Vol. 26. Pp. 633-657.↩

40.V. Ia. Grosul, N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko, M. N. Guboglo, G. A. Sanin, A. Z. Volkova. Istoriia Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki. T. 1. Tiraspol’, 2000. S. 5. Volume two, which keeps with Soviet tradition in covering the post-1917 period, consists of two parts – before and after 1989. According to information from the co-author Babilunga (May 9, 2001), advance copies of the two parts of volume two have been printed, but due to lack of printing capacities, bookstores have not yet been supplied with copies. See, however, for a quintessence of volume two Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 22-241.↩

41.Mark Bassin. Russia and Asia // Nicholas Rzhevsky (Ed.). Cambridge Companion to Russian Culture. Cambridge. 1998. Pp. 57-84. See also Caroline Humphrey. “Eurasia:” Ideology and The Political Imagination in Provincial Russia // C. M. Hann (Ed.). Postsocialism. Ideals, Ideologies and Practices in Eurasia. London, New York, NY, 2002. Pp. 258-276.↩

42.Grosul et al. Op. cit. Pp. 51-54.↩

43.N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko. Stranitsy rodnoi istorii. Uchebnoe posobie po istorii dlia 5 klassa srednei shkoly. Tiraspol’, 1997. Inside cover. For the context see also Stefan Troebst. Wie ein skythischer Bogen. Transnistrien als slawisches Bollwerk zwischen dem Orient und Europa // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2002. No. 232. October 7. P. 8.↩

44.Cf. the map Geopolitical Position // Dniester Moldavian Republic (Ed.). Atlas of the Dniester Moldavian Republic. 2nd edition. Tiraspol’, 2000. P. 7. For the topoi of the “middle” and “center” in geopolitical thought see Hans-Dietrich Schultz. Fantasies of Mitte: Mittellage and Mitteleuropa in German Geographical Discussion of the 19th and 20th Centuries // Political Geography Quarterly. 1989. Vol. 8. Pp. 315-339, and on patterns of mental mapping in Eastern Europe Stefan Troebst. ‘Intermarium’ und ‘Vermählung mit dem Meer:’ Kognitive Karten und Geschichtspolitik in Ostmitteleuropa // Geschichte und Gesellschaft. 2002. Vol. 28. S. 435-469.↩

45.For the term “kishinevskii natsizm” see Volkova. Op. cit. Vvedenie, and for the slander “rumynskie liudoedy” a photograph dated June 1992 showing Transnistrian volunteers on a truck whose tailboard carries the graffiti “Death to the Romanian cannibals!” (Smert’ rumynskim liudoedam!) in a brochure by Valerii Kruglikov, N. Vorob’eva. Bendery. Leto-92. Voina (Fotoal‘bom). Bendery, 1995. P. 40.↩

46.The TMR’s relationship with neighboring Ukraine is ambivalent. On the one hand, TMR diplomacy succeeded in securing Kiev’s participation as a co-mediator along with Russia and the OSCE in the conflict between Tiraspol’ and Chişinău in 1995 and in having Ukrainian peacekeeping troops deployed in order to safeguard, together with Russian, Moldovan, and Transnistrian troops, the security zone established after the armed clash over Bendery in July 1992 along the Dniester. On the other hand Smirnov’s personal relationship with his eastern neighbor is seriously strained by the fact that in September 1991 he was kidnapped in Kiev by the Moldovan secret service and brought to Chişinău with the knowledge and obviously the consent of the Ukrainian authorities. After several weeks in jail, he was released. Cf. Volkova. Op. cit. Ch. V.↩

47.I. Smirnov. Pridnestrov’e – chastichka velikogo rossiiskogo gosudarstva // Dnestrovskaia pravda. 1995. September 23.↩

48.Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. Pp. 245. See also Nicholas Dima. Moldova and the Transdnestr Republic. Russia’s Geopolitics toward the Balkans. Boulder, CO, New York, NY, 2001.↩

49.ZUBR stands for Za Soiuz Ukrainy, Belorussii i Rossii (“For a Union of the Ukraine, Belarus’ and Russia.”) Yet the Russian word zubr, meaning literally a European bison, stands in a figurative sense also for an arch-reactionary. The “TMR People’s Movement ZUBR,” founded in 2000 in Tiraspol’ by followers of the regime, claims to cooperate closely with ZUBR organizations in Kiev, Minsk and Moscow. See http://www.zubr.idknet.com and http://www.bhhrg.org/zubr.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

50.Grosul et al. Op. cit. P. 8.↩

51.For example, TMR Minister of Defence Col. Shtefan F. Kitsak harshly criticized “the complaisance of Russia with regard to the advance of NATO to the East” during the May 1 celebrations of 2002 in Tiraspol’. Russia, according to the colonel, runs the risk of “degenerat[ing] into a mere principality of Muscovy.” See Tat’iana Georgiu. Pridnestrovtsy vystupaiut za samostoiatel’nost’ svoego gosudarstva // Ol’viia-Press. Informatsionnoe agentstvo. May 1, 2002. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol03-05-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

52.Gurii V. Sudakov. Shest’ printsipov russkosti, ili Kogda v Rossii poiavitsia prazdnik Datskogo korolevstva? // Rossiiskaia gazeta. September 17, 1999. P. 4. See also Gerhard Simon. Auf der Suche nach der ‘Idee für Rußland.’ // Osteuropa 1997. Vol. 47. S. 1169-1190; the documentation Rußland: Eine ‘nationale Idee’ per Preisausschreiben // Ibid. S. A 483 – A 498; Christiane Uhlig. Nationale Identitätskonstruktionen für ein postsowjetisches Rußland // Ibid. S. 1191-1206; and Jutta Scherrer. ‘Sehnsucht nach Geschichte.’ Der Umgang mit der Vergangenheit im postsowjetischen Rußland // Christoph Conrad, Sebastian Conrad (Hrsg). Die Nation schreiben. Geschichtswissenschaft im internationalen Vergleich. Göttingen, 2002. S. 165-206.↩

53.Michael Thumann. Das Lied von der russischen Erde. Moskaus Ringen um Einheit und Grösse. Stuttgart, 2002. S. 127-128. See also Valerii A. Tishkov. Rossiia kak mnogonatsional’naia obshchnost’. Moskva, 1994.↩

54.Sudakov. Op. cit.↩

55.Vladimir Solonari. Creating ‘a People:’ a Case Study in (Post-) Soviet History Writing. A presentation to the Post-Communist Politics and Economy Workshop at the Davis Center for Russian and European Studies of Harvard University. 8 May 2002. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~postcomm/papers/2001-02/solonari.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

56.Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photographs “d00223-170.jpg” and “Tiraspoly.jpg”. http://www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_2.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

57.The same applies to the series of one, five, ten and twenty-five ruble bills issued in 2000. Cf. the website of the Transnistrian Republican Bank at http://www.cbpmr.net/ger/bnknt1.html. Also, a recent set of stamps shows Suvorov: V Pridnestrov’e vypushchena novaia pochtovaia marka // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. June 28. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol92-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

58.See the article by KVINT executive director Oleg M. Baev. Suvorovskaia simvolika v produktsii zavoda ‘KVINT.’ // A. V. Suvorov glazami sovremennikov i potomkov. Irina Blagodatskich et al. (Ed.). Seriia “Pridnestrovskie istoricheskie chteniia”. T. 1. Tiraspol’, 2002, and the “Suvorov” section on the KVINT website at http://www.kvint.com. In 2000, the Transnistrian Republican Bank has issued a five-ruble bill showing on the frontispiece a portrait of Suvorov and on the backside the building of KVINT headquarters. See http://www.banknotes.com/TA35.JPG (Last consulted march 25, 2003).↩

59.Babilunga, Bomeshko. P. 3.↩

60.See the map of Tiraspol’ in the Lonely Planet travel guide by Nicola Williams. Romania & Moldova. Hawthorne, Victoria, etc., 1998. P. 476.↩

61.Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photograph ‘d00223-046.jpg’ http://www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_1.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

62.Elfie Siegl. Drei Lenins in einer Straße waren einer zuviel // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2001. No. 286. December 8. P. 3, and http://www.net.md/germanikuss/medien/medienart/wahlen_pmr.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

63.See http://www.cbpmr.net/ger/coins25.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

64.Litskai in a conversation with a group of German, Moldovan, and Russian social scientists on October 30, 2001, in Tiraspol’. Cf. Stefan Troebst. Moldova zwischen Ost und West: Nationale Identität und europäische Orientierung. Deutsch-moldauisches Symposium, Chişinău, Tiraspol’, Comrat, Republik Moldau, 27. Oktober – 1. November 2001 // Südosteuropa-Mitteilungen. 2002. Vol. 42. Issue 3. P. 86.↩

65.In Russian “Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublika”, in Ukrainian “Pridnistrovs’ka Moldavs’ka Respublika” and in Moldovan “Republika Moldoveniaskė Nistrianė” or “Republika Moldovenesht’ Nistrene”.↩

66.Grigorii V. Volovoi. Krovavoe leto v Benderach. Khronika pridnestrovskoi tragedii. Bendery, 1993; Kruglikov, Vorob’eva. Op. cit.; N. V. Babilunga, B. G. Bomeshko. Bendery: rasstreliannye nepokorennye. Tiraspol’, 1993; Idem. Kniga pamiati zashchitnikov Pridnestrov’ia. A. A. Karaman (Ed.). Tiraspol’, 1995; Bendery 1408-1998 – proshloe, nastoiashchee, budushchee. Izdanie Gorodskogo Soveta narodnykh deputatov i Gosadministratsii. Bendery, 1998.↩

67.Nikolai P. Rudenko. Dubossary – gorod zashchitnikov PMR. Dubossary, 1995; Viktor V. Diukarev. Dubossary 1989-1992 gg. Za kulisami politiki. Tiraspol’, 2000. Smirnov used the tenth anniversary of the fighting in Dubossary on March 2, 2002, to deliver a fierce anti-Chişinău speech and to stage an elaborate ceremony in the Dubossary memorial. Cf. Dubossary 10 let spustia // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. March 3. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol12-03-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003). See the appeal of Smirnov to the inhabitants of the TMR: Obrashchenie k narodu prezidenta Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki, 1 marta 2002 g // Ibid. 2002. March 1, http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol08-03-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

68.Andrei Safonov. Vzaimootnosheniia Moldovy i Pridnestrov’ia: Istoriia problemy i perspektivy (osnovnye aspekty) // Valeriu Moşneaga (Ed.). Statul naţional şi societatea polietnică: Moldova în anii 90. Materiale I simpozion moldo-german (Chişinău, 13-18 octombrie 1996). Chişinău, 1997. P. 153.↩

69.In a conversation during a Moldovan-Transnistrian conflict workshop on September 13, 1997, in Flensburg, Germany. At the workshop lead by Priit Järve. From Ethnopolitical Conflict to Inter-Ethnic Accord in Moldova. Flensburg, Germany, and Bjerremark, Denmark, September 12-17, 1997. ECMI Report, 1. Flensburg, 1998 http://www.ecmi.de/doc/download/report_1.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

70.Novaia stolitsa Pridnestrov’ia (k voprosu ob”edineniia Tiraspolia i Bender) // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. May 29. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol72-05-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

71.On the attempts to negotiate a solution to the conflict since 1993, see Adam Daniel Rotfeld. In Search of a Political Settlement - The Case of Conflict in Moldova // Staffan Carlsson (Ed.). The Challenge of Preventive Di-plomacy. The Experience of the CSCE. Stockholm, 1994. Pp. 100-137; Claus Neukirch. Transdniestria and Moldova: Cold Peace at the Dniestr // Helsinki Monitor. 2001. Vol. 12. Pp. 122-135; Idem. Russia and the OSCE--the Influence of Interested Third and Disinterested Fourth Parties on the Conflicts in Estonia and Moldova // Journal on Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe. July 2001, http://www.ecmi.de/jemie/download/JEMIE07Neukirch11-07-01.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003); Stefan Troebst. Der Transnistrienkonflikt und seine Bearbeitung durch die OSZE // Günter Baechler, Arno Truger (Hrsg.). Friedensbericht 1998. Chur, Zürich, 1998. S. 347-379; Idem. Kein spektakulärer Erfolg, aber Spannungen reduziert. Die OSZE in der Republik Moldova // Wissenschaft und Frieden. 1997. Vol. 15. No. 1. S. 23-27. http://www.uni-muenster.de/PeaCon/wuf/wf-97/9710205m.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003); Rolf Welberts. Der Einsatz der OSZE in Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des OSZE-Konfliktmanagements in Moldova // Ethnos – Nation. 1995. Vol. 3. No. 2. S. 71-84. For the most recent and again unsuccessful mediation initiatives of the OSCE of July 2002 and the Russian Federation of December 2002, see Vladimir Socor. Federalization Experiment in Moldova // Russia and Eurasia Review. 2002. Vol. 1. No. 4 (16 July). http://russia.jamestown.org/pubs/view/rer_001_004_001.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003); Bruno Coppieters, Michael Emerson. Conflict Resolution for Moldova and Transdniestria through Federalisation? / Centre for European Policy Studies Policy Brief. No. 25. London, August 2002. http://www.ceps.be/Pubs/2002/No25Moldova-Transdniestria.pdf (Last consulted March 25, 2003); Protokol zasedaniia “Postoiannogo soveshchaniia po politicheskim voprosam v ramkakh peregovornogo protsessa po pridnestrovskomu uregulirovaniiu” (g. Moskva, 17-18 dekabria 2002 goda), http://mfa-pmr.idknet.com/home/moskov181202.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003). A Declaration of Intent to renew talks on the basis of the federalization scheme proposed by the mediators on December 5, 2002 had not been signed by the Moldovan side. Cf. Moldova otvergaet predlozhenie mirovogo soobshchestva po uregulirovaniiu pridnestrovskoi problemy // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. December 7. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol21-12-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

72.Cf. Moldova Photo Gallery: Transnistria. Photographs ‘d00223-185.jpg’ and ‘d00223-186.jpg’. http://www.photo.md/photos/transnistria_2.html (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

73.‘My pomnim vse...’ V Pridnestrov’e nachinaiutsia meropriiatiia k 10-letnei godovshchine Benderskoi tragedii // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. June 18. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol51-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

74.Pridnestrovtsy protivopostavili sile oruzhiia silu pravoty. I vystoiali // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. June 19. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol57-06-02.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

75.I. Kozhuchar’. Slovo o polku Igoreve. Razdum’ia, naveiannye ocherednym prochteniem unikal’nogo proizvedeniia russkoi literatury // Pridnestrov’e. October 29-31 and November 1, 1996 (from the series “Lidery”).↩

76.Deinenko et al. Op. cit. Pp. 5-13.↩

77.Ibid. 4; N. Smirnov. Zhit’ na nashei zemle. Moskva, 2001.↩

78.Volkova. Op. cit.↩

79.Cf. http://www.bhhrg.org/conclusion1.htm and http://www.bhhrg.org/candidates_and_the_issues.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

80.Priznali lidera – priznaiut i respubliku! Cf. http://www.bhhrg.org/zubr.htm (Last consulted March 25, 2003).↩

81.Ibid.↩

82.Deutsche Presse-Agentur. Smirnov als Präsident der Dnjestr-Republik bestätigt // Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. 2001. No. 288. December 1. P. 1.↩

83.I. Smirnov. Dorogie chitateli! // Babilunga et al. Fenomen Pridnestrov’ia. P. 3.↩

84.Ibid.↩

85.That Zenovich was perceived by Smirnov as a serious competitor is demonstrated by the fact that he dismissed Zenovich as mayor of Bendery at the peak of the election campaign. See Aleksandr Isaev. Liuboi tsenoi uderzhat’sia u vlasti. Smeshchen s dolzhnosti glavnyi sopernik Smirnova na prezidentskich vyborakh v Pridnestrov’e // Nezavisimaia Moldova. 2001. No. 206 (2649). November 1. P. 1.↩

86.Jeff Chinn. The Case of Transdniester (Moldova) // Lena Jonson, Clive Archer (Eds.). Peacekeeping and the Role of Russia in Eurasia. Boulder, CO, Oxford, 1996. Pp.103-120.↩

87.N. V. Babilunga. Territorial’naia identichnost’ kak faktor politicheskoi stabil’nosti Pridnestrov’ia // M. N. Guboglo (Ed.). Ėtnicheskaia mobilizatsiia i mezhėtnicheskaia integratsiia. Moscow, 1999. P. 192.↩

88.Ibid. See also M. N. Guboglo. Mezhnatsional’naia napriazhennost’ v real’nosti i v predstavleniiach grazhdan // Ibid. Pp. 172-184; and N. V. Babilunga. Ėtnicheskaia identichnost’ naseleniia Pridnestrov’ia // Ėtnicheskaia mobilizatsiia i mezhėtnicheskaia integratsiia: Istoriia. Faktory. Gorizonty. Nauchno-prakticheskaia konferentsiia. September 29, 1998. Doklady i soobshcheniia. Chisinau, 1999. Pp. 30-32.↩

89.Vladimir Kolossov. A Small State vs. a Self-Proclaimed Republic: Nation-Building, Territorial Identities and Prospects of Conflict Resolution (The Case of Moldova-Transdniestria) // Stefano Bianchini (Ed.). From the Adriatic to the Caucasus. The Dynamics of (De)Stabilization. Ravenna, 2001. Pp. 98-104.↩

90.Ibid. Pp. 100-101.↩

91.Ibid. P. 101.↩

92.Cf. Konstitutsia Pridnestrovskoi Moldavskoi Respubliki, Tiraspol, January, 17 1996 // Pridnestrov’e. Spetsial’nyi vypusk. No. 17 (287). January 31, 1996. P. 3. See also http://www.olvia.idknet.com/constit.htm (Last consulted march 25, 2003).↩

93.Zashchitniki Pridnestrov’ia: Prochti i peredai drugomu! Dorogie Pridnestrovtsy! Brat’ia i sestry! Tovarishchi i druz’ia! Uvazhaemyi Igor’ Nikolaevich! / Undated fly-sheet collected on October 18, 1997 in downtown Tiraspol’. I thank Klemens Büscher for providing me with a copy.↩

94.Mathias Bernath. Das mazedonische Problem in der Sicht der komparativen Nationalismusforschung // Südost-Forschungen. 1970. Vol. 29. S. 244. For the decisive decade of Macedonian nation-building see Stefan Troebst. Yugoslav Macedonia, 1943-1953: Building the Party, the State and the Nation // Melissa K. Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly (Eds.). State-Society Relations in Yugoslavia, 1945-1992. New York, NY, 1997. Pp. 243-266.↩

95.John O’Loughlin, Vladimir Kolossov, Andrei Tchepalyga. National Construction, Territorial Separatism, and Post-Soviet Geopolitics in the Transdniester Moldovan Republic // Post-Soviet Geography and Economics. 1998. Vol. 39. Pp. 352. http://www.colorado.edu/IBS/PEC/johno/pub/PsgeTMR.doc (Last consulted march 25, 2003). See also M. N. Guboglo. Tiazhkoe bremia konkuriruiushchich identichnostei. Opyt Pridnestrov’ia // Ezhegodnyi istoricheski almanach Pridnestrov’ia. 2000. T. 4. Pp. 13-35.↩

96.See Miroslav Hroch. Real and Constructed: the Nature of the Nation // John A. Hall (Ed.). The State of the Nation. Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism. Cambridge, 1998. Pp. 91-106.↩

97.Laitin. Identity. P. 260. On the Ruritanians-Megalomanians metaphor see Ernest Gellner. Nations and Nationalism. Ithaca, NY, 1983. Pp. 58-62.↩

98.Laitin. Identity. P. 330.↩

99.Ulrich Schneckener. Sezession als Konfliktlösung – Unabhängigkeit für Montenegro und Kosovo? // Leviathan. 2001. Bd. 29. S. 314-336. See also Idem. Auswege aus dem Bürgerkrieg. Modelle zur Regulierung ethno-nationalistischer Konflikte in Europa. Frankfurt am Main, 2002.↩

100.Taras Kuzio. History, Memory and Nation Building in the Post-Soviet Colonial Space // Nationalities Papers. 2002. Vol. 30, P. 257. For the zigzag course in the post-Soviet continuation of Soviet-style Moldovan nation-building by indigenization see Charles King. Moldovan Identity and the Politics of Pan-Romanianism // Slavic Review. 1994. Vol. 53. Pp. 345-368; and Vladimir Solonari. Narrative, Identity, State: History Teaching in Moldova // East European Politics and Society. 2002. Vol. 16. Pp. 415-445.↩

101.Andrei Mospanov. Pridnestrov’e: Trudnyi put’ k Evrope // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. December 25. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol109-12-02.htm (Last consulted march 25, 2003). The fact that this report was published by the official TMR press agency indicates that Za Evropu. Vzaimoponimanie i sotrudnichestvo NGO led by the journalist Anatolii Panin has considerable political support.↩

102.Protokol zasedaniia Postoiannogo soveshchaniia. See also Moskovskie itogi: Vse-taki na dogovornoi osnove // Ol’viia-Press. 2002. December 19. http://www.olvia.idknet.com/ol84-12-02.htm (Last consulted march 25, 2003).↩

Ab Imperio

Ab Imperio

“Мы приднестровцы!” Постсоветское манипулирование социальной идентичностью в долине Днестра

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Примечания