2/2003 Beyond the Borders: Political and Economic Migrations, Internal and External Exile

Женщины на Сахалине: конвергенция сексуальности и пенологии в позднеимперской России

Эндрю Гентес

2/2003

Публикуется на английском.

SUMMARY:

В статье Эндрю Гентеса ставится вопрос об использовании имперским правительством приговоренных к каторжным работам женщин, а также родственниц каторжан для поддержания колонии на Сахалине. Автор использует архивные документы, материалы переписей и рассказы очевидцев, интерпретируя их с помощью современных гендерных и феминистских теорий, позволяющих увидеть, как накладывались друг на друга сексуальность и пенология на Сахалине. Преодолевая распространенную тенденцию упрощенного толкования идей М. Фуко, Гентес показывает, как механизмы социальной самоорганизации преодолевают тройное отчуждение – географическое, правовое, гендерное – и превращают наиболее обездоленную группу сахалинцев в агентов влияния, пусть и на локальном уровне.

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1.For an overall history of Siberian exile see Gentes. Roads to Oblivion: Siberian Exile and the Struggle between State and Society in Russia, 1593-1917 / Ph.D. dissertation. Brown University, 2002. British historian Alan Wood has written several articles on Siberian exile. See e.g. Wood. Siberian Exile in the Eighteenth Century // Siberica. 1990. No. 1. Vol. 1. Pp. 38-63.↩

2.Gentes. The Institution of Russia’s Sakhalin Policy, from 1868 to 1875 // Journal of Asian History. 2002. No. 1. Vol. 36. Pp. 1-31.↩

3.Cf. e.g. Norval Morris, David J. Rothman (Eds.). The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society. New York, 1998; Estelle B. Freedman. Their Sisters’ Keepers: Women’s Prison Reform in America, 1830-1930. Ann Arbor, 1981; Joanna Waley-Cohen. Exile in Mid-Qing China: Banishment to Xinjiang, 1758-1820. New Haven, 1991; Ted Conover. Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing. New York, 2001.↩

4.John Simpson (Ed.). The Oxford Book of Exile. New York, 1995. P. 207.↩

5.Mahnaz Afkhami. Women in Exile. Charlottesville, Va., 1994; Philip D. Morgan. Work and Culture: The Task System and the World of Lowcountry Blacks, 1700 to 1880 // Stanley N. Katz, et al. (Eds.). Colonial America: Essays in Politics and Social Development, 4th ed. New York, 1993. Pp. 486-523; Christine Hünefeldt. Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor among Lima’s Slaves, 1800-1854. Berkeley, 1994; Eugene D. Genovese. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. New York, 1976; Judith R. Walkowitz. Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State. New York, 1980; Donna J. Guy. Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina. Lincoln, Neb., 1991.↩

6.For a thumbnail sketch of this debate see Joanna Phoenix. Prostitute Identities: Men, Money and Violence // British Journal of Criminology. 2000. No. 1. Vol. 40. Pp. 37-38. The literature on prostitution is, of course, far more varied than is here evident. For a typology of different theories see R. Barri Flowers. The Prostitution of Women and Girls. Jefferson, N.C., 1998. Chap. 4.↩

7.Kathleen Barry. The Prostitution of Sexuality. New York, 1995. P. 38.↩

8.See e.g. Wendy Chapkis. Live Sex Acts: Women Performing Erotic Labor. New York, 1997; Julia O’Connell Davidson. Prostitution, Power and Freedom. Ann Arbor, 1998; Graham and Annette Scambler (Eds.). Rethinking Prostitution: Purchasing Sex in the 1990s. New York, 1997; Gail Pheterson (Ed.). A Vindication of the Rights of Whores. Seattle, 1989; Sexuality & Culture: Sex Work & Sex Workers. Vol. 2. 1998.↩

9.Belinda J. Carpenter. Re-Thinking Prostitution: Feminism, Sex, and the Self. New York, 2000.↩

10.Phoenix. Op. Cit. Pp. 38, 53 (orig. italics).↩

11.See Barry. Pp. 75ff.↩

12.He writes: “By power I do not mean ‘Power’ as a group of institutions and mechanisms that ensure the subservience of citizens of a given state. By power, I do not mean, either, a mode of subjugation which, in contrast to violence, has the form of the rule. Finally, I do not have in mind a general system of domination exerted by one group over another, a system whose effects, through successive derivations, pervade the entire social body.” (Michel Foucault. The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. Vol. 1. New York, 1990. P. 92.) Foucault’s positive definition of power is elaborated throughout his oeuvre.↩

13.Idem. Pp. 93, 94, 103.↩

14.Certainly, it is females’ bodies that have been predominantly subjected to sexual violence. But the more profound and insidious invasion of the mind and behavior – panopticism not just as a physical construct but, more importantly, as a totalitarian’s wet dream come true (See Michel Foucault. Discipline & Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York, 1977. Pp. 195ff, et passim.) – effectively united both male and female exiles as victims. Yet it must be categorically stated that the tsarist exile system was but a pale cousin of Foucault’s full-blown, panopticonic nightmare world. Moreover, it is only to such phantasmagorical worlds that his and others’ theoretical models strictly apply. And yet, I think Foucault acknowledges as much, for one sees a clear progression from his Discipline & Punish to The History of Sexuality in terms of allowing for personal agency. Indeed, Foucault should be read and understood sequentially rather than systematically. Some disagree. Cf. e.g. Carolyn J. Dean. The Productive Hypothesis: Foucault, Gender, and the History of Sexuality // History and Theory 1994. No. 3. Vol. 33. Pp. 271-96. Dean wrongly characterizes several of Foucault’s ideas in this article. For example, that “he de-emphasizes the power of individual agency and of contested meaning…” (277) and “turns performance [in the sense of using one’s sexuality] into an exhilarating joke on power rather than a strategy by which powerless people learn to survive” (295). As my discussion above indicates, these statements inaccurately portray Foucault’s theory of power, which, as noted, stems largely from Nietzsche, whom Dean inexplicably dismisses out-of-hand (278). Misinterpreting and misappropriating Foucault allows her to advance what is nevertheless her own provocative theory “of crises in male subjectivity originating after the Great War ” (271).↩

15.See John Stephan. Sakhalin: A History. Oxford, 1971. Pp. 62-64.↩

16.Nashi zadachi na Sakhaline // Golos, 11 Nov. 1875. Pp. 1-2.↩

17.Rossiskii gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv Dal´nego Vostoka (RGIA DV). F. 701. Glavnoe upravlenie vostochnoi Sibiri (GUVS). Op. 1. D. 142. Ll. 35-53, 54-61, 62-63. Memoranda between Sakhalin administration and GUVS.↩

18.Ibid. Ll. 3-4, 5-6, 9-12. Sakhalin administration to GUVS.↩

19.Ibid. D. 191. Ll. 110-122, 153-154. Telegrams between Sakhalin, GUVS, and Main Prison Administration (Glavnoe tiuremnoe upravlenie – GTU).↩

20.Ibid. D. 142. Ll. 23-25, 33-53. Sakhalin administration to GUVS, 14 Dec. 1876.↩

21.See L. Mel´shin. V mire otverzhennykh. Zapiski byvshago katorzhnika. 3rd ed. St. Peterburg, 1903. Passim; George Kennan. Siberia and the Exile System. 2 vols. New York, 1891. Passim.↩

22.Obshchestvo izuchenii Amurskogo kraia (OIAK). Cat. No. 1598. Sbornik ofitsial´nykh svedenii ob Amurskom krae, Tom I. [V.I.] Vlasov. Kratkii ocherk neustroistv, sushchestvuiushchikh na katorge. P. 53 (orig. italics). Report to GUVS, 31 Jan. 1873.↩

23.RGIA DV. F. 701. Op. 1. D. 53. L. 27. GUVS governor-general Dmitrii G. Anuchin to Konstantin N. Shelashnikov, governor of Irkutsk guberniia (Irkutskoe obshchee gubernskoe upravlenie – IOGU), 19 Feb. 1880.↩

24.Ibid. L. 56. Letter to GUVS, 24 Jan. 1880. The Glavnoe tiuremnoe upravlenie was formed in 1879 as a sub-department of the MVD. See Bruce F. Adams. The Politics of Punishment: Prison Reform in Russia, 1863-1917. DeKalb, 1996. Passim.↩

25.On views of male homosexuality during the late imperial period see Dan Healey. Masculine Purity and ‘Gentlemen’s Mischief’: Sexual Exchange and Prostitution between Russian Men, 1861-1941 // Slavic Review. 2000. No. 2. Pp. 233-65. In the context of Siberian exile see also S. V. Maksimov. Sibir´ i katorga. 3rd ed. St. Peterburg, 1900. P. 313; Alan Wood. Sex and Violence in Siberia: Aspects of the Tsarist Exile System / John Massey Stewart and Alan Wood. Siberia: Two Historical Perspectives. London, 1984. P. 41.↩

26.On the exploitation of Australia’s women see Robert Hughes. The Fatal Shore. New York, 1987. Pp. 244-72.↩

27.I discuss this early period in Gentes. ‘Licentious Girls’ and Frontier Domesticators: Women and Siberian Exile from the Late 16th to the Early 19th Century // Sibirica. Forthcoming.↩

28.RGIA DV. F. 701. Op. 1. D. 53. Ll. 28-29. GUVS to IOGU, 22 Mar. 1880.↩

29.Ibid. L. 30.↩

30.Ibid. Ll. 58-59. Undated, anonymous document reporting on official activities in Amur oblast´ and elsewhere.↩

31.Ibid. Ll. 108-113. ZO MVD to GUVS, 11 Jun. 1881.↩

32.Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Irkutskoi oblasti (GAIO). F. 32. Irkutskoe gubernskoe upravlenie. Op. 5. D. 31. Ll. 23-24, 32-33. GUVS to IOGU, 27, 28 Mar. 1880.↩

33.Ibid. L. 37. Inspektor Irkutskoi vrachebnoi uprava to IOGU 28 Mar. 1880.↩

34.RGIA DV. F. 701. Op. 1. D. 53. L. 75. PO MVD to GUVS, 17 Jul. 1880.↩

35.Ibid. Ll. 157-164. Letter and roster from AO MVD to GUVS, 23 Jan. 1883.↩

36.Ibid. Ll. 138-141. Report to Anuchin, 12 Feb. 1882.↩

37.Ibid. In his report of ten years earlier MVD official V.I. Vlasov noted the coterminous relationship between domestic servants, prostitutes, and concubines. OIAK. Cat. No. 1598. Vlasov. Kratkii ocherk. Pp. 16-18.↩

38.RGIA DV. F. 701. Op. 1. D. 90. Ll. 44-52. Copy of internal MVD report, 2 Sep. 1883.↩

39.All convicts scheduled for Sakhalin were transported by the Volunteer Fleet, formed in 1879 expressly for this purpose. Exiles were packed in cages below deck for a several months journey via the Suez Canal with stops in Ceylon, Singapore, and Nagasaki. Hoses were installed on deck that could shoot steam and boiling water in case of a mutiny. See M.S. Vysokov. Istoriia sakhalinskoi oblasti. S drevneishikh vremen do nashikh dnei. 3rd ed. Iuzhno-Sakhalinsk, 1995. P. 91; I.Ia. Foinitskii. Uchenie o nakazanii v sviazi s tiur´movedeniem. St. Peterburg, 1889. Pp. 298-99; Harry De Windt. The New Siberia. London, 1896. Pp. 9-22; A.V. Shcherbak. S ssyl´nokatorzhnymi // Novoe vremia. 20 Feb. 1891.↩

40.Anton Chekhov. The Island: A Journey to Sakhalin. Trans. Luba and Michael Terpak. Westport, Conn., 1977. P. 30.↩

41.Rukopisnyi otdel´ Biblioteki imeni Lenina. F. 331. K. 26. Ed. khr. 2/1, 2/2, 2/4, 2/5, 2/6; TsGALI. F. 549. Op. 1. D. 23, kolichestvo listov 2g.↩

42.Pervaia vseobshchaia perepis´ naseleniia Rossiiskoi Imperii, 1897 g. LXXVII. Ostrov Sakhalin. Tetrad´ 2. (posledniaia). Spb., 1904. Tables, pp. v, vi, vii. (Henceforth: 1897 census.) Note that exiles are not referred to as such in this source, but rather obliquely as “those not assigned to a soslovie.” Nonetheless, it is clear that this refers to exiles. Hawes (see below) reported that at the beginning of 1898 there were 7,080 penal laborers on the island. When added to his figures for exile-settlers and peasants, the total equals 22,167, matching almost exactly the combined totals of those categorized by the 1897 census as “not assigned to a soslovie” and “peasants and cossacks.” Cf. Charles H. Hawes. In the Uttermost East. New York, 1904. P. 85.↩

43.Katorga i ssylka na ostrov Sakhalin, v Priamurskii krai i v Sibir´. Izvlechenie iz otcheta Chinovnika osobykh poruchenii pri Ministerstve Iustitsii, Magistra ugolovnago prava D.A. Drilia po komandirovke v 1896 godu. St. Peterburg, 1898. Pp. 4, 14. Dril´ (1846-1910) was a polymath with advanced degrees in medicine and law, training in psychoneurology and finance, and an active interest in children’s welfare. He drew upon this varied background in his criminological pursuits. He represented Russia at several international penology congresses; and in addition to his travels to Siberia and Sakhalin, visited French prisons on New Caledonia, which led to his 1899 work comparing France’s and Russia’s exile systems. Entsiklopedicheskii slovar´ Brokgauz i Efron biografii. Moskva, 1993. Vol. 4. Pp. 812-14.↩

44.V. M. Doroshevich. Sakhalin (Katorga). 3 vols. Moskva, 2001.↩

45.Hawes. Op. cit.; De Windt. Op. cit.; Benjamin Howard. Prisoners of Russia: A Personal Study of Convict Life in Sakhalin and Siberia. New York, 1902.↩

46.E. N. Anuchin. Izsledovaniia o protsente soslannykh v Sibir´ v period 1827-1846 godov. Materialy dlia ugolovnoi statistiki Rossii. St. Peterburg, 1873. Table, p. 41; S. V. Maksimov. Sibir´ i katorga. 3 vols. S-Peterburg, 1871. Vol. 1. Table, p. 333; S. S. Ostroumov. Prestupnost´ i ee prichiny v dorevoliutsionnoi Rossii. Moskva, 1980. Table 17, p. 45.↩

47.Hawes. P. 141.↩

48.Dril´. P. 14.↩

49.Doroshevich. Vol. 1. Pp. 86-88.↩

50.Chekhov. Island. P. 34.↩

51.A former convict recalled that many exiles read “voraciously” in prison. (Mel´shin. Op. cit. Pp. 192-93.) Doroshevich’s account suggests many male exiles were heavy readers, as can be inferred from Brooks’s and Eklof’s works on popular literacy. Cf. Jeffrey Brooks. When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861-1917. Princeton, 1985; Ben Eklof. Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture, and Popular Pedgogy, 1861-1914. Berkeley, 1990.↩

52.Chekhov. Island. P. 301 n.18.↩

53.1897 census. Tables, pp. 52-55; Vysokov. Op. cit. P. 94.↩

54.1897 census. Table, p. vi.↩

55.A. Chekhov. Ostrov Sakhalin. Moskva, 1984. Pp. 105-106 (orig. italics).↩

56.Ibid. Pp. 107-108.↩

57.Doroshevich. Vol. 1. Pp. 69-72, 74.↩

58.1897 census. Table, pp. 54-55↩

59.Hawes. P. 141.↩

60.1897 census. Table, pp. 54-55.↩

61.Dril´ found that only 7 of Tymovsk okrug’s 21 settlements could provide for themselves in terms of foodstuffs and planting seeds. The situation was worse in Aleksandrovsk okrug (4 of 37) and better in Korsakovsk okrug (17 of 58). In 1895 the administration had to purchase foodstuffs totaling 67,791 r. 88 k. that were distributed among 5,235 exile-settlers at a cost of 12 r. 95 k. per capita. Dril´. P. 6.↩

62.Chekhov. Island. P. 233.↩

63.Dril´. P. 14. Doroshevich does however note that the above-mentioned and strong-willed Sharonichka was able to fight off assignment as a chinovnik’s “cook.”↩

64.1897 census. Table, p. vi.↩

65.Chekhov. Island. Pp. 239-40.↩

66.The woman sarcastically uses the word molchal’nitsa, usually applied in a religious context. Doroshevich. Vol. 1. Pp. 89-90.↩

67.Ibid. P. 89.↩

68.Deborah Oxley. Convict Maids: The Forced Migration of Women to Australia. Cambridge, UK, 1996. Pp. 6-10, 217-19; Hughes. Pp. 244-50.↩

69.It was because of syphilis that prostitution was so well regulated in tsarist Russia. In 1763 Catherine II oversaw the opening of Russia’s first hospital devoted to treating venereal diseases. Although prostitution operated on Sakhalin largely unhindered, it was a violation of the martial law in force there, and so because of their extralegal status prostitutes were not subject to the medical examinations those in Petersburg were. Cf. Laura Engelstein. The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siècle Russia. Ithaca, 1992. Pp. 84-88, et passim; Joan Neuberger. Hooliganism: Crime, Culture, and Power in St. Petersburg, 1900-1914. Berkeley, 1993. Pp. 34, 36-38, et passim.↩

70.I infer the treatment of these women from the work done on actual widows and the wives of military recruits (soldatki). Cf. Steven L. Hoch. Serfdom and Social Control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a Village in Tambov. Chicago, 1986. Pp. 161-62; Rodney D. Bohac. Widows and the Russian Serf Community // Barbara Evan Clements, et al. (Eds.). Russia’s Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation. Berkeley, 1991. Pp. 95-112; Barbara Alpern Engel. Between the Fields & the City: Women, Work & Family in Russia, 1861-1914. New York, 1996. P. 85.↩

71.Chekhov. Island. P. 243.↩

72.Hawes. Pp. 144-45. Cf. Dril´. P. 19.↩

73.Chekhov. Ostrov. Pp. 67-68, 97-98n.↩

74.Dril´. Pp. 15-16.↩

75.Chekhov. Island. Pp. 322-23.↩

Примечания

[1]For an overall history of Siberian exile see Gentes. Roads to Oblivion: Siberian Exile and the Struggle between State and Society in Russia, 1593-1917 / Ph.D. dissertation. Brown University, 2002. British historian Alan Wood has written several articles on Siberian exile. See e.g. Wood. Siberian Exile in the Eighteenth Century // Siberica. 1990. No. 1. Vol. 1. Pp. 38-63.

[2]Gentes. The Institution of Russia’s Sakhalin Policy, from 1868 to 1875 // Journal of Asian History. 2002. No. 1. Vol. 36. Pp. 1-31.

[3]Cf. e.g. Norval Morris, David J. Rothman (Eds.). The Oxford History of the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society. New York, 1998; Estelle B. Freedman. Their Sisters’ Keepers: Women’s Prison Reform in America, 1830-1930. Ann Arbor, 1981; Joanna Waley-Cohen. Exile in Mid-Qing China: Banishment to Xinjiang, 1758-1820. New Haven, 1991; Ted Conover. Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing. New York, 2001.

[4]John Simpson (Ed.). The Oxford Book of Exile. New York, 1995. P. 207.

[5]Mahnaz Afkhami. Women in Exile. Charlottesville, Va., 1994; Philip D. Morgan. Work and Culture: The Task System and the World of Lowcountry Blacks, 1700 to 1880 // Stanley N. Katz, et al. (Eds.). Colonial America: Essays in Politics and Social Development, 4th ed. New York, 1993. Pp. 486-523; Christine Hünefeldt. Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labor among Lima’s Slaves, 1800-1854. Berkeley, 1994; Eugene D. Genovese. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. New York, 1976; Judith R. Walkowitz. Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State. New York, 1980; Donna J. Guy. Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires: Prostitution, Family, and Nation in Argentina. Lincoln, Neb., 1991.

[6]For a thumbnail sketch of this debate see Joanna Phoenix. Prostitute Identities: Men, Money and Violence // British Journal of Criminology. 2000. No. 1. Vol. 40. Pp. 37-38. The literature on prostitution is, of course, far more varied than is here evident. For a typology of different theories see R. Barri Flowers. The Prostitution of Women and Girls. Jefferson, N.C., 1998. Chap. 4.

Ab Imperio

Ab Imperio

Женщины на Сахалине: конвергенция сексуальности и пенологии в позднеимперской России

Примечания