Elites, Reforms, and Power Institutions in Soviet Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia in the 1920-1940s: a Comparative Historical Analysis | Ab Imperio

Elites, Reforms, and Power Institutions in Soviet Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia in the 1920-1940s: a Comparative Historical Analysis | Ab Imperio

Примечания

[1]M. Voslenskii. Nomenklatura: gospodstvuiushchii klass Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moscow, 1991.

[2]Some scholars have argued that the supra-legality of Russian communism was the continuation of the Russian autocracy that in its turn had resulted from the Muscovite princes’ and Golden Horde rule. Following this logic, the USSR represented a variation of the Eurasian autocratic empire. However hypothetical or controversial this approach might seem, it nevertheless suggests a methodological reorientation from the analysis of the USSR as a state, or a classical empire, or even as a political system, to an analysis of the Soviet supra-legal organizations, and primarily to the CPSU, its structure, evolution, identity and policy. For a more traditional argument on this “continuity” see Jacob Seiden. The Mongol Impact on Russia from the 13th Century to the Present: Mongol Contributions to the Political Institutions of Muscovy, Imperial Russia, and the Soviet State. Vols. I-III. Washington, DC, 1971. P. 1005; A recent attempt to create a model based on this argument see A. I. Fursov, Y. S. Pivovarov. Russkaia sistema // Politicheskaia nauka. Teoriia i metodologiia. Moscow, 1997. Pp. 186-189.

[3]For more details see: Irina Morozova. The MPRP: Reconstruction of History // Tsyrendorzhyiev Readings. Kiev, 2006. Pp. 203-219.

[4]See: Gregory J. Massell. The Surrogate Proletariat. Muslim Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919-1929. Princeton, NJ, 1974. Pp. xx, xxii-xxiii; Sergei P. Poliakov. Everyday Islam. Religion and Tradition in Rural Central Asia. New York, London, 1992. Pp. 16-17; O. Roy. The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations. London, New York, 2000; Paul Georg Geiss. Pre-Tsarist and Tsarist Central Asia: Communal Commitment and Political Order in Change. London, New York, 2003. Pp. 58-60, 97-113.

[5]“Sovershenno sekretno”: Lubyanka – Stalinu o polozhenii v strane (1922-1934).Moscow, 2001,2002, 2003.

[6]Adeeb Khalid. Between Empire and Revolution. New Work on Soviet Central Asia // Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 2006. Vol. 7. No. 4. Pp. 865-884.

[7]Helene Carrere d'Encausse. Islam and the Russian Empire. Reform and Revolution in Central Asia. London, 1988; Alexandre Bennigsen & S. Enders. Wimbushet. Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union. Chicago & London, 1979; Alexandre Bennigsen & S. Enders Wimbushet. Muslims of the Soviet Empire. A Guide. London, 1985; Ingerborg Baldauf. Schriftreform umd Schreiftwechsel bei den Muslimischen Russland – und Sowiettürken (1850-1937). Budapest, 1993.

[8]A. Khalid. The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia. Berkeley, 1998; M. Buttino. Politics and Social Conflict during a Famine: Turkestan immediately after the Revolution // Collapsing Empire: Underdevelopment, Ethnic Conflicts and Nationalism in the Soviet Union. Milan, 1993; Adrienne Edgar. Tribal Nation: The Making of Soviet Turkmenistan. Princeton, 2004; Arne Haugen. The Establishment of National republics in Soviet Central Asia. Basingstoke, UK, 2003; Douglas T. Northrop. Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia. Ithaca, NY, 2004.

[9]Revolutionnye meropriiatiia Narodnogo Pravitel’stva v 1921-1924 gg. Moscow, 1960. Pp. 124-126.

[10]Revoliutsionnaia molodezh’ Mongolii. Ulaanbaatar, 1925. P. 62.

[11]Rossiiskii Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Sotsial’no-Politicheskoi Istorii (RGASPI). F. 495. Op. 152. D. 21. L. 7.

[12]“Sovershenno sekretno”., Vol. 1 Part 1. Moscow, 2001. P. 260.

[13]Ibid. Pp. 270-271.

[14]Ibid. P. 270.

[15]Information from the interviews by the author. Mongolia. August 2001.

[16]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Pp. 316-317.

[17]Ibid. P. 870.

[18]Ibid. P. 894.

[19]T. V. Staniukovich. Poseleniia i zhilishche russkogo, ukrainskogo i belorusskogo naseleniia Sredneaziatskih respublik i Kazakhstana // Etnografiia russkogo naseleniia Sibiri i Srednei Azii. Moscow, 1969. Pp. 221-222.

[20]Not all Russian peasants in Central Asia were able to build up their fortunes, also because usually not the richest and the most skilled peasants migrated. The Cossacks, nevertheless, practically always had strong households.

[21]N. N. Kradin. Imperiia Hunnu. Vladivostok, 1996. Pp. 20-25.

[22]Paul Georg Geiss. Pre-Tsarist and Tsarist Central Asia. Communal Commitment and Political Order in Change. London and New York, 2003. Pp. 187-192.

[23]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 2. Moscow, 2001. P. 248.

[24]Terry Martin. The Affirmative Action Empire. Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939. Ithaca and London, 2001. Pp. 137-138. “Kazakh,” here indicates Kazakh SSR.

[25]Irina Y. Morozova. The Comintern and Revolution in Mongolia. Cambridge, 2002. Pp. 40-43.

[26]Ashirbek Muminov. Muslim Law in Central Asia // W. Johnson and I. F. Popova (Eds.). Central Asian Law: An Historical Overview. Lawrence, KS, 2004. P. 62.

[27]Qur’an 2: 255; 57-2.

[28]C. Poujol. Islam in Post-Soviet Central Asia: Democracy Versus Justice? // I. Morozova (Ed.). Towards Social Stability and Democratic Governance in Central Eurasia: Challenges to Regional Security. Amsterdam, 2005. P. 52.

[29]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 2. Moscow, 2001. Pp. 52-53, 69-70.

[30]Ibid.

[31]Ibid.

[32]Ibid. Pp. 158-159.

[33]The Russian State Military Archive. F. 7. Op. 2. D. 466. L. 58.

[34]“Sovershenno sekretno”. P. 133.

[35]Khalkha – Central Mongolia, the territory historically inhabited by the dominating ethnic group Khalkh.

[36]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 152. D. 3. L. 2.

[37]RGASPI. F. 17. Op. 28. D. 1. L. 156.

[38]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 2. P. 16.

[39]Ibid. P. 201.

[40]Ibid. Vol. 3. Part 2. Pp. 10-511.

[41]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 2. D. 188. L. 50-56, Op. 3. D. 56. L. 44.

[42]Materialy po raionirovaniiu Srednei Azii. Bukhara, Tashkent, 1926.

[43]Edgar. Pp. 45-46.

[44]A. Koichev. Natzional’no-territorial’noe razmezhivanie v Ferganskoi doline (1924-27). Bishkek, 2001; J. Thorez. Enclaves et enclavement dans le Ferghana post-soviétique. CEMOTI. 2003. No. 35. Pp. 29-39.

[45]RGASPI. F. 62. Op. 1. D. 6.

[46]Bennigsen & Wimbush, Pp.123-124.

[47]Edgar. P. 53.

[48]Jeremy Smith. The Bolsheviks and the National Question, 1917-23. London, 1999, Pp. 80-81, 84, 89.

[49]M. M. Begaliev. K proektu sozdaniia gornoi oblasti kyrgyzov v 1921-1922 gg. // Voprosy vostokovedeniia i vostokovfednogo obrazovaniia. Issue 1. Bishkek, 2002.

[50]G. D. Dzhunushalieva. Evoliutsiia Kyrgyzskoi Gosudarstvennosti (1920-80s-e gg). Bishkek, 2006. P. 8.

[51]The documents of the Kyrgyz oblast party conferences of the later, post-delimitation period show that Pishpek managed economic planning for the “south”. RGASPI. F. 17. Op. 29. D. 1, 8-9, 16, 35, 45.

[52]Sharad K. Soni. Mongolia – China Relations. Modern and Contemporary Times. New Delhi, 2006. Pp. 91-96.

[53]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 152. D. 31. L. 61-65.

[54]From the conversation with Prof. L. Jamsran. September 2001.

[55]See: N. N. Kradin. Kochevniki, mir-imperii i sotsial’naya evoliutsiya // Al’ternativnye puti tsivilizatsii. Moscow, 2000. P. 319; N. N. Kradin. Transformatsiia politicheskoi sistemy ot vozhdestva k gosudarstvu: mongol’skii primer, 1180(?)-1206 // N. N. Kradin and V. A. Lynsha (Eds.). Al’ternativnye puti k rannei gosudarstvennosti. Vladivostok, 1995. Pp. 188-198.

[56]“Sovershenno sekretno”. P. 180.

[57]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 3. Part 2. Moscow, 2002. Pp. 633-634.

[58]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 2. Moscow, 2001. P. 251.

[59]S. P. Polyakov. Traditionalism in Modern Central Asian Society. Moscow, 1989.

[60]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Pp. 110-111.

[61]RGASPI. F. 62. Op. 4. D. 1, 13, 243.

[62]Martin. Pp. 140-141.

[63]Morris Rossabi. Modern Mongolia: From Khans To Commissars to Capitalists. Berkeley, 2005; Henri A. L. Dekker. A New Property Regime in Kyrgyzstan; An Investigation into the Links Between Land Reform, Food Security, and Economic Development. A Model to Assess the Effectiveness of Land Tenure Change. Amsterdam, 2001.

[64]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Vol. 3. Part 2. Pp. 660-661.

[65]Ibid. P. 768.

[66]Ibid. Vol. 4. Part 1. P. 82.

[67]Ibid. P. 187.

[68]Ibid. Pp. 224-225.

[69]Ibid. Vol. 1 Part 2. P. 723.

[70]Ibid. Pp. 303-305.

[71]Ibid. Vol. 2. P. 249.

[72]Ibid. Pp. 436-437.

[73]Ibid. Vol. 4. Part 1. Pp. 109, 159-160.

[74]Martin. P. 145.

[75]“Sovershenno sekretno”. P. 522.

[76]Ibid. P. 386.

[77]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 154. D. 391. L. 60.

[78]Martin. Pp. 130-131.

[79]Ibid. P. 24.

[80]“Sovershenno sekretno”. Pp. 484-485.

[81]Martin, P. 148.

[82]Martin. Pp. 175-176.

[83]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 2. D. 70b. L. 259.

[84]S. G. Luzianin. Rossiia – Mongoliia – Kitai v pervoi polovine XX veka. Politicheskie vzaimootnosheniia v 1922-1946 gg. Moscow, 2000. P. 146.

[85]Martin. Pp. 180-181.

[86]See: I. Morozova. The Impact of Collectivization and Industrialization on Transformation of Central Asian Societies // Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta. Series 13. Asian Studies. 2006. No. 3. Pp. 59-69.

[87]RGASPI. F. 495. Op. 154. D. 391. L. 42.

[88]Ibid. L. 50.

[89]Ibid. L. 56, 71.

[90]Ibid. Op. 4. D. 73. L. 9.

[91]S. K. Roschin. Politicheskaia istoriia Mongolii (1921-1940 gg.). Moscow, 1999. P. 258.

[92]See: D. Horowitz. Ethnic Groups in Conflicts. Berkeley, Calif., 1985. Pp. 152-154.

[93]RGASPI. F. 17. Op. 128. D. 20. L. 55.

[94]Ibid. D. 206. L. 44, 46, 67.

[95]Daniel Mark Rosenberg. Political Leadership in a Mongolian Nomadic Pastoralist Collective / Ph.D. Thesis; University Of Minnesota, 1977. Р. 34.

[96]S. I. Kuznetsova. Etnosotsial’nye problemy gosudarstv Tsentral’noi Azii // Rossiya i okruzhaiuschii mir: kontury razvitiia. Moscow, 1996. P. 236.

[97]However, one should not fail to remember that Central Asian Republics did not overtake the Slavic and Baltic Republics in economic development. According to the GDP index per person, the most prosperous Central Asian Republic was Kazakhstan: it was at the fourth place among the most developed Republics and left behind even Ukraine and Lithuania. The Kyrgyz Republic was the tenth, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan – the 13th, 14th, and 15th. (L. A. Friedman, M. F. Vidiasova. Polozhenie SNG – Evrazii v meniaiuscheisia strukture sovremennogo mira // Rossiya i okruzhaiuschii mir: kontury razvitiia. Moscow, 1996. Pp. 20-22.)

[98]This shift, however, did not echoed in Ulaanbaatar that was continuously guided from Moscow to oppose any manifestation of nationalism (pan-Mongolism).